Part Two
The Commentary to
the Discourse on Right View
1. Thus have I heard: the
Sammaditthi Sutta.
2. Herein, all such questions spoken by the
Elder as " 'One of right view, one of right view' is
said, friends. In what way is a noble disciple
one of right view
. . . ?" or "And
what, friends, is the unwholesome
. . . ?" -- these are
questions showing a desire to expound. Herein,
since those who know, those who do not know, those outside
the Dispensation, those within it, those who speak by
hearsay, etc., and those who speak by personal knowledge, say
"one of right view," therefore, taking it as an
expression (common) to the many, he touched upon it twice,
saying "One of right view, one of right view" is
said, friends (sammaditthi sammaditthi ti avuso vuccati).
The intention here is this: "Others say 'one
of right view,' and still others say 'one of right view.'
Since that is said, in what way, friends, is a noble disciple
one of right view in respect of meaning and
characteristic?" Herein, one of right view
is one possessing a lucid and praiseworthy view (sobhanaya
pasatthaya ca ditthiya samannagato). But when
this word "right view" is used to signify a state
(rather than a person endowed with that state), it then means
a lucid and praiseworthy view.[1]
This right view is twofold: mundane (lokiya)
and supramundane (lokuttara). Herein, the
knowledge of kamma as one's own and knowledge which is in
conformity with the (Four Noble) Truths are mundane right
view; or, in brief, (mundane right view is) all understanding
that is accompanied by the taints.[2]
Understanding connected with the noble paths and fruits is
supramundane right view.[3]
The person possessing right view is of three
kinds: the worldling (puthujjana), the
disciple in higher training (sekha), and the one
beyond training (asekha). Herein, the
worldling is of two kinds: one outside the
Dispensation and one within the Dispensation.
Herein, one outside the Dispensation who believes in kamma is
one of right view on account of the view of kamma as one's
own, but not on account of that which is in conformity with
the truths, because he holds to the view of self.
One within the Dispensation is of right view on account of
both. The disciple in higher training is one of
right view on account of fixed right view,[4] the one beyond training on
account of (the right view) that is beyond training.[5]
But here "one of right view" is intended as one
possessing supramundane wholesome right view, which is fixed
in destiny and emancipating. Hence he
said: whose view is straight, who has perfect
confidence in the Dhamma, and has arrived at this true Dhamma
(ujugata'ssa ditthi dhamme aveccappasadena samannagato
agato imam saddhammam). Because of its going
straight without deviating to either extreme, or because of
its going straight by removing all crookedness such as bodily
crookedness, etc., supramundane right view is
"straight." One possessing that view
also possesses perfect confidence, unshakable confidence, in
the ninefold supramundane Dhamma.[6]
And by becoming disentangled from all the thickets of (wrong)
views, by abandoning all the defilements, by departing from
the round of rebirths, by bringing the practice to its
consummation, he is said to have come by the noble path to
this "true Dhamma" proclaimed by the Enlightened
One, that is, Nibbana, the plunge into the Deathless.
The Wholesome and the Unwholesome
3. Understands the unwholesome (akusalan ca
pajanati): he understands the unwholesome
called the ten courses of unwholesome kamma (action),
penetrating this by way of function with the understanding
that has Nibbana as its object as "This is
suffering." (Understands) the root of the
unwholesome (akusalamulan ca pajanati):
And he understands the unwholesome root which has become the
root condition of that (unwholesome), penetrating this, in
the same way, as "This is the origin of
suffering." The same method applies here
also in regard to "the wholesome" and "the
root of the wholesome." And, as it is here,
so in all the following sections, the understanding of the
subject should be understood by way of function.
In that way (ettavata pi): by this
much; by this understanding of the unwholesome,
etc. He is one of right view (sammaditthi hoti):
he possesses supramundane right view of the kind
aforesaid. Whose view is straight
. . . and has arrived at
this true Dhamma: At this point the summary
version of the teaching has been expounded. And
this (part of) the teaching itself was brief; but for those
bhikkhus it should be understood that the penetration (of the
meaning) through right attention occurred in detail.
But in the second section (Section 4) it should be
understood that the teaching too, as well as the penetration
through attention, is stated in detail.
Herein, the bhikkhus [at the council at the Great
Monastery held to rehearse the Pitakas]
said: "In the brief exposition the two lower
paths are discussed, in the detailed exposition the two
higher paths," taking into account the passage at the
end of the sections setting forth the detailed exposition
that begins "he entirely abandons the underlying
tendency to lust." But the Elder (presiding
over the council) said: "In the brief
exposition the four paths are expounded as a group, and also
in the detailed exposition."[7]
This query into the brief and detailed expositions which
has been cleared up here should be understood in all the
following sections in the way stated here. From
here on we shall only comment on terms that are new or
obscure.
The Unwholesome Courses of
Action
4. Herein, firstly, in the detailed exposition
of the first section: as regards the passage
beginning killing living beings is unwholesome (panatipato
kho avuso akusalam), "unwholesome" should be
understood by way of the occurrence of unwholesomeness, or as
what is opposed to the wholesome, which is to be dealt with
below (Section 6). As to characteristic, it is
blameworthy and has painful result, or it is
defiled. This, in the first place, is the comment
upon the general terms here.
But as regards the particular terms, the phrase killing
living beings means the slaughter of a living being, the
destruction of a living being. And here a living
being (pana) is, according to ordinary usage, a being
(satta); in the ultimate sense it is the life
faculty. "Killing living beings" is the
volition to kill on the part of one who is aware, in respect
of a living being, that it is a living being, and which
(volition), manifesting itself through one or the other of
the doors of body and speech, initiates activity resulting in
the cutting off of the life faculty.
In relation to beings such as animals, etc., which lack
moral qualities (guna), it is less blameworthy in
respect of small living beings and more blameworthy in
respect of beings with large bodies.
Why? Because of the magnitude of the effort
involved. And when the effort involved is equal,
because of the magnitude of the object (the being
killed). In relation to beings such as humans,
etc., who possess moral qualities, it is less blameworthy in
respect of beings with few good qualities and more
blameworthy in respect of beings with great
qualities. When the size of the body and moral
qualities are equal, however, it is less blameworthy when the
defilements and activity are mild, and more blameworthy when
they are strong: so it should be understood.
There are five constituents for this (act of killing a
living being): a living being, awareness that it
is a living being, the mind to kill, activity, and the death
(of the being) thereby.
There are six means: one's own person,
command, a missile, a fixed contrivance, a magical spell,
supernormal power.
To explore this matter in detail, however, would involve
too much diffuseness. Therefore we shall not
explore it in detail, or any other subject similar in
kind. Those who wish to go into the matter may do
so by looking it up in the Samantapasadika, the Vinaya
Commentary.[8]
Taking what is not given (adinnadana):
the carrying off of others' goods, stealing, robbery, is what
is meant. Herein, "what is not given"
is another's possession, which the other may use as he likes
without incurring penalty or blame. "Taking
what is not given" is the volition to steal on the part
of one who is aware, in respect of another's possession, that
it is another's possession, and which (volition) initiates
activity resulting in the taking of that thing.
That (taking of what is not given) is less blameworthy
when the other's property is of low value, and more
blameworthy when it is of high value.
Why? Because of the high value of the object
(stolen). When the value of the objects is equal,
the act is more blameworthy when the object belongs to one of
outstanding qualities, and less blameworthy when the object
belongs to one who, in comparison, is inferior with respect
to moral qualities.
There are five constituents of this act:
another's possession, awareness that it is another's
possession, the mind to steal, the activity, and the carrying
off (of the object) thereby.
There are six means: one's own person,
etc. (as for killing). And these (acts of
stealing) may be classed, according to the way in which they
occur, by way of the following: taking by theft,
by force, by concealment, by stratagem, by fraud.
This here is in brief; the details, however, are given in the
Samantapasadika.[9]
Misconduct in sensual pleasures (kamesu micchacara):
here, "in sensual pleasures" (kamesu) means
in regard to sexual intercourse.
"Misconduct" is entirely reprehensible vile
conduct. As to characteristic, sexual misconduct
is the volition to transgress bounds occurring through the
body door by way of unrighteous intent.
Herein, out of bounds for men, firstly, are the twenty
kinds of women, that is, the ten beginning with those
protected by the mother, namely, "protected by the
mother, protected by the father, protected by the mother and
father, protected by the brother, protected by the sister,
protected by relatives, protected by the clan, protected by
the law, under protection, entailing a penalty"; and the
ten beginning with those purchased with money, namely,
"one purchased with money, one who lives (with a man) by
her own desire, one who lives (with a man) on account of
wealth, one who lives (with a man) on account of cloth, one
who is given (in marriage with the ceremony of) dipping the
hand in water, one who has been (taken to wife and) relieved
of her burden-carrying head-pad, one who is a slave and a
wife, one who is a servant and a wife, one who is carried off
in a raid, one engaged at so much a time."[10]
Then, as concerns women, for the twelve kinds of women
consisting of the two, namely, under protection and entailing
a penalty, and the ten beginning with those purchased with
money, other men are out of bounds.
This sexual misconduct is less blameworthy when (the
person) out of bounds is without good qualities such as
virtue, etc., and more blameworthy when (the person)
possesses good qualities such as virtue, etc.
There are four constituents of this act: an
object which is out of bounds, the mind to engage in that,
the effort to engage, and consent to the union of sexual
organs.[11] The
means is single: one's own person.
False speech (musavada):
"false" (musa) is the verbal effort or
bodily effort for destroying welfare (made) by one bent on
deceiving. "False speech" is the
volition initiating the verbal effort or bodily effort of
deceiving another on the part of one intent on
deceiving. According to another method,
"false" means an unreal, untrue case,
"speech" the communication of that as being real,
true. As to characteristic, "false
speech" is the volition of one desiring to communicate
to another an untrue case as being true, which (volition)
initiates such an act of communication.
This is less blameworthy when the welfare destroyed is
slight, and more blameworthy when the welfare destroyed is
great. Further, when it occurs on the part of
householders who, not wishing to give away some belonging of
theirs, say "I do not have it," it is less
blameworthy; when one who is a witness speaks (falsely) for
the purpose of destroying another's welfare, it is more
blameworthy. In the case of those gone forth,
when it occurs by their saying as a joke, after they have
obtained just a little oil or ghee, in the manner of the
Puranas, "Today the oil is flowing in the village just
like a river," then it is less blameworthy; but for
those who speak (as a witness) saying that they have seen
what they have not seen it is more blameworthy.
There are four constituents of this act: an
untrue case, the mind to deceive, the appropriate effort, the
communicating of that meaning to another. The
means is single: one's own person
only. That is to be regarded as the performing of
the action of deceiving another by means of the body or by
means of something attached to the body or by means of
speech. If, through that action, the other
understands that meaning, one is bound by the kamma of false
speech at the very moment of the volition initiating the
action.
Malicious speech, etc.: The kind of speech
that creates in the heart of the person to whom it is spoken
affection for oneself and voidness (of affection) for another
is malicious speech (pisuna vaca). The kind of speech
by which one makes both oneself and another harsh, the kind
of speech which is also itself harsh, being pleasant neither
to the ear nor to the heart -- that is harsh speech (pharusa
vaca). That by which one gossips idly,
without meaning, is gossip (samphappalapa).
Also, the volition that is the root cause of these gains the
name "malicious speech," etc. And that
only is intended here.
Therein, malicious speech is the volition of one with a
defiled mind, which (volition) initiates an effort by body or
by speech either to cause division among others or to endear
oneself (to another). It is less blameworthy when
the person divided has few good qualities, and more
blameworthy when such a one has great qualities.
Its constituents are four: another person to be
divided, the intention to divide, (thinking) "Thus these
will be separated and split" or the desire to endear
oneself, (thinking) "Thus I shall become loved and
intimate," the appropriate effort, the communicating of
that meaning to that person.
Harsh speech is the entirely harsh volition initiating an
effort by body or by speech to wound another's vital
feelings. This is an example given for the
purpose of making it clear: A village boy, it is
said, went to the forest without heeding his mother's
words. Unable to make him turn back, she scolded
him angrily, saying: "May a wild buffalo
chase you!" Then a buffalo appeared before
him right there in the forest. The boy made an
asseveration of truth, saying: "Let it not
be as my mother said but as she thought!"
The buffalo stood as though tied there. Thus,
although the means (employed) was that of wounding the vital
feelings, because of the gentleness of her mind it was not
harsh speech. For sometimes parents even say to
their children, "May robbers chop you to
pieces!" yet they do not even wish a lotus
leaf to fall upon them. And teachers and
preceptors sometimes say to their pupils, "What is the
use of these shameless and heedless brats? Drive
them out!" yet they wish for their success
in learning and attainment.
Just as, through gentleness of mind, speech is not harsh,
so through gentleness of speech, speech does not become
unharsh; for the words "Let him sleep in peace"
spoken by one wishing to kill are not unharsh
speech. But harsh speech is such on account of
harshness of mind only. It is less blameworthy
when the person to whom it is spoken has few good qualities,
and more blameworthy when such a one has great
qualities. Its constituents are
three: another to be abused, an angry mind, the
abusing.
Gossip is the unwholesome volition initiating an effort by
body or by speech to communicate what is
purposeless. It is less blameworthy when indulged
in mildly, and more blameworthy when indulged in
strongly. Its constituents are two:
the being intent on purposeless stories such as the Bharata
war or the abduction of Sita, etc., and the telling of such
stories.[12]
Covetousness (abhijjha): It covets,
thus it is covetousness; "having become directed towards
others' goods, it occurs through inclination towards
them" is the meaning. It has the
characteristic of coveting others' goods thus:
"Oh, that this were mine!" It is less
blameworthy and more blameworthy as in the case of taking
what is not given. Its constituents are
two: another's goods, and the inclination for
them to be one's own. For even though greed has
arisen based on another's goods, it is not classed as a
(completed) course of kamma so long as one does not incline
to them as one's own (with the thought), "Oh, that this
were mine!"
Ill will (byapada): It injures welfare
and happiness, thus it is ill will (hitasukham byapadayati
ti byapado). Its characteristic is the mental
defect (of wishing for) the destruction of
others. It is less blameworthy and more
blameworthy as in the case of harsh speech. Its
constituents are two: another being, and the wish
for that being's destruction. For even though
anger has arisen based on another being, there is no breach
of a course of kamma so long as one does not wish, "Oh,
that this being might be cut off and destroyed!"
Wrong view (micchaditthi): It sees
wrongly due to the absence of a correct grasp of things, thus
it is wrong view. Its characteristic is the
mistaken view that "there is no (result from)
giving," etc. It is less blameworthy and
more blameworthy as in the case of gossip.
Moreover, it is less blameworthy when not fixed in destiny,
and more blameworthy when fixed.[13]
Its constituents are two: a mistaken manner of
grasping the basis (for the view), and the appearance of that
(basis) in accordance with the manner in which it has been
grasped.
Now the exposition of these ten courses of unwholesome
kamma should be understood in five ways: as to
mental state (dhammato), as to category (kotthasato),
as to object (arammanato), as to feeling (vedanato),
and as to root (mulato).
Herein, as to mental state: The first seven
among these are volitional states only. The three
beginning with covetousness are associated with volition.[14]
As to category: The eight consisting of the
first seven and wrong view are courses of kamma only, not
roots. Covetousness and ill will are courses of
kamma and also roots; for covetousness, having arrived at the
(state of) a root, is the unwholesome root greed, and ill
will is the unwholesome root hate.
As to object: Killing living beings, because
it has the life faculty as object, has a formation as
object. Taking what is not given has beings as
object or formations as object. Misconduct in
sensual pleasures has formations as object by way of tangible
object; but some say it also has beings as
object. False speech has beings or formations as
object; likewise malicious speech. Harsh speech
has only beings as object. Gossip has either
beings or formations as object by way of the seen, heard,
sensed and cognized; likewise covetousness. Ill will has only
beings as object. Wrong view has formations as
object by way of the states belonging to the three planes (of
being).
As to feeling: Killing living beings has
painful feeling; for although kings, seeing a robber, say
laughingly, "Go and execute him," their volition
consummating the action is associated only with
pain. Taking what is not given has three
feelings. Misconduct (in sensual pleasures) has
two feelings, pleasant and neutral, but in the mind which
consummates the action there is no neutral
feeling. False speech has three feelings;
likewise malicious speech. Harsh speech has
painful feeling only. Gossip has three
feelings. Covetousness has two feelings, pleasant
and neutral; likewise wrong view. Ill will has
painful feeling only.
As to root: Killing living beings has two
roots, by way of hate and delusion; taking what is not given,
by way of hate and delusion or by way of greed and delusion;
misconduct, by way of greed and delusion; false speech, by
way of hate and delusion or by way of greed and delusion;
likewise for malicious speech and gossip; harsh speech, by
way of hate and delusion. Covetousness has one
root, by way of delusion; likewise ill will.
Wrong view has two roots, by way of greed and delusion.
The Unwholesome Roots
5. Greed is a root of the unwholesome,
etc.: It is greedy, thus it is greed (lubbhati
ti lobho); it offends against (it hates), thus it is hate
(dussati ti doso); it deludes, thus it is delusion (muyhati
ti moho). Among these, greed is itself
unwholesome in the sense that it is blameworthy and has
painful results; and it is a root of these unwholesome
(deeds) beginning with killing living beings, for some in the
sense that it is an associated originative cause, for some in
the sense that it is a decisive support
condition. Thus it is an unwholesome
root. This too is said: "One who
is lustful, friends, overwhelmed and with mind obsessed by
lust, kills a living being" (A.3:71/i,216; text slightly
different). The same method applies to the state
of being unwholesome roots in the cases of hate and delusion.
The Wholesome Courses of
Action
6. Abstention from killing living beings is
wholesome (panatipata veramani), etc.:
Here "killing living beings," etc. have
the same meaning as aforesaid. It crushes the
hostile, thus it is abstention (veram manati ti veramani);
the meaning is that it abandons the hostile.
Or: with that as the instrument one abstains (viramati),
the syllable ve being substituted for the syllable
vi. This here is, in the first place, the
commentary on the phrasing.
But as to the meaning, abstention is refraining (virati)
associated with wholesome consciousness. What is
stated thus: "For one refraining from
killing living beings, that which is on that occasion the
leaving off, the refraining" (Vibh. 285),
that is the refraining associated with wholesome
consciousness. As to kind, it is
threefold: refraining in the presence of
opportunity, refraining because of an undertaking, and
refraining because of eradication (of defilements).
Herein, refraining in the presence of an opportunity (sampattavirati)
is to be understood as the refraining which occurs in those
who have not undertaken any training rule but who do not
transgress when an opportunity for doing so presents itself
because they reflect upon their birth, age, learning, etc.,
like the lay follower Cakkana in the island of Sri Lanka.
When he was a boy, it is said, his mother developed an
illness, and the doctor said, "Fresh hare's flesh is
needed." Then Cakkana's brother sent him,
saying, "Go, dear, and hunt in the
field." He went there. On that
occasion a hare had come to eat the young corn.
On seeing him it bolted swiftly, but it got entangled in a
creeper and squealed "kiri, kiri."
Guided by the sound, Cakkana went and caught it, thinking,
"I will make medicine for my mother."
Then he thought again, "This is not proper for me, that
I should deprive another of life for the sake of my mother's
life." So he released it, saying "Go
and enjoy the grass and the water with the other hares in the
forest." When his brother asked him,
"Did you get a hare, dear?" he told him
what had happened. His brother scolded
him. He went to his mother and determined upon an
asseveration of truth: "Since I was born I
am not aware that I have ever intentionally deprived a living
being of life." Straightaway his mother
became well.
Refraining because of an undertaking (samadanavirati)
is to be understood as the refraining which occurs in those
who do not transgress in a particular case because they have
undertaken training rules, giving up even their own lives in
the undertaking of the training rules and in what is superior
to that, like the lay follower who dwelt at Uttaravaddhamana
Mountain.
It is said that after undertaking the training rules from
the Elder Pingala Buddharakkhita who lived in the Ambariya
Monastery, he was plowing a field. Then his ox
got lost. Searching for it, he climbed up
Uttaravaddhamana Mountain. There a large serpent
seized him. He thought, "Let me cut off his
head with this sharp axe." Then he thought
again, "This is not proper for me, that I should break a
training rule that I have undertaken in the presence of my
honored teacher." Thinking up to the third
time, "I will give up my life but not the training
rule," he threw the sharp hand axe that was slung on his
shoulder into the forest. Straightaway the
creature released him and went away.
Refraining because of eradication (of defilements) (samucchedavirati)
is to be understood as the refraining associated with the
noble path. After the arising of this even the
thought, "I will kill a living being," does not
occur to the noble persons.
This refraining is called "wholesome" (kusala)
because of the occurrence of wholesomeness (kosalla);
or because of shedding the vile (kucchitassa salanato).
Also, evil conduct is commonly called "weeds" (kusa)
and it mows this down (lunati), thus it is called
"wholesome."
As in the case of the unwholesome, so for these courses of
wholesome kamma the exposition should be understood in five
ways: as to mental state, as to category, as to
object, as to feeling, and as to root.
Herein, as to mental state: The first seven
among these can be both volitions and abstinences; the last
three are associated with volition only.
As to category: The first seven are courses of
kamma only, not roots. The last three are courses of kamma
and also roots. For non-covetousness, having
arrived at the (state of) a root, is the wholesome root
non-greed; non-ill will is the wholesome root non-hate; and
right view is the wholesome root non-delusion.
As to object: The objects of these are the
same as the objects of killing living beings,
etc. For abstention is spoken of in relation to
something which can be transgressed. But just as
the noble path, which has Nibbana as object, abandons the
defilements, so too should these courses of kamma, which have
the life faculty, etc., as object, be understood to abandon
the kinds of evil conduct beginning with killing living
beings.
As to feeling: All have pleasant feeling or
neutral feeling. For there is no painful feeling
which arrives at the wholesome.
As to root: The first seven courses of kamma
have three roots by way of non-greed, non-hate, and
non-delusion in one who abstains by means of consciousness
associated with knowledge. They have two roots in
one who abstains by means of consciousness dissociated from
knowledge.[15] Non-covetousness
has two roots in one who abstains by means of consciousness
associated with knowledge, one root (in one who abstains) by
means of consciousness dissociated from knowledge. Non-greed,
however, is not by itself its own root. The same
method applies in the case of non-ill will. Right
view always has two roots, by way of non-greed and
non-hate. [16]
The Wholesome Roots
7. Non-greed is a root of the wholesome (alobho
kusalamulam), etc.: Non-greed is not greed;
this is a term for the state that is opposed to
greed. The same method applies in the case of
non-hate and non-delusion. Among these, non-greed
is itself wholesome; and it is a root of these wholesome
(courses of kamma) beginning with abstention from killing
living beings, for some in the sense that it is an associated
originative cause and for some in the sense that it is a
decisive support condition. Thus it is a
wholesome root. The same method applies to the
state of being wholesome roots in the cases of non-hate and
non-delusion.
Conclusion on the
Unwholesome and the Wholesome
8. Now, summing up the meaning of all that has
been set forth in brief and in detail, he states the
concluding section beginning with the words when a noble
disciple. Herein, has thus understood the
wholesome (evam akusalam pajanati) means:
has thus understood the unwholesome by way of the ten courses
of unwholesome kamma as described. The same
method applies in the case of the root of the unwholesome,
etc.
Up to this point, by a single method, emancipation as far
as Arahantship has been expounded for one who has the Four
Noble Truths as his meditation subject.
How? Here, the ten courses of unwholesome kamma
with the exception of covetousness, and the (ten) courses of
wholesome kamma, are the truth of suffering.
These two states -- covetousness and the greed which is a
root of the unwholesome -- are, literally speaking, the truth
of the origin. Speaking figuratively, however,
all the courses of kamma are the truth of suffering, and all
the wholesome and unwholesome roots are the truth of the
origin.[17] The
non-occurrence of both is the truth of cessation.
The noble path fully understanding suffering, abandoning its
origin, and understanding its cessation is the truth of the
path. Thus two truths are stated in their own
nature and two are to be understood by way of the guideline
of conversion.[18]
He entirely abandons the underlying tendency to lust (so
sabbaso raganusayam pahaya): Understanding
thus the unwholesome, etc., he abandons in all ways the
underlying tendency to lust. He abolishes the
underlying tendency to aversion (patighanusayam
pativinodetva): and he removes in all ways
too the underlying tendency to aversion, is what is
meant. Up to this point the path of non-return is
stated.[19] He
extirpates the underlying tendency to the view and conceit
"I am" (asmi ti ditthimananusayam samuhanitva):
he extricates the underlying tendency to the view and conceit
which occurs in the mode of grasping the five aggregates as a
group (with the notion) "I am," due to failure to
distinguish any state among them.
Therein, by the phrase the underlying tendency to the view
and conceit "I am" (ditthimananusayam) what
is meant is the underlying tendency to conceit which is
similar to a view (ditthisadisam mananusayam).
For this underlying tendency to conceit is similar to a view
because it occurs (with the notion) "I am";
therefore it is stated thus. And one who wishes
to understand this conceit "I am" in detail should
look up the Khemaka Sutta in the Khandhiyavagga
(S.22:89/iii,126ff.).
By abandoning ignorance (avijjam pahaya):
having abandoned ignorance, the root of the round (of
existence). And arousing true knowledge (vijjam
uppadetva): having aroused the true knowledge
of the path of Arahantship which completely extricates that
ignorance. At this point the path of Arahantship
is stated.[20] He
here and now makes an end of suffering (ditth'eva dhamme
dukkhass'antakaro hoti): in this very
existence he becomes one who cuts off the suffering of the
round.
In that way too (ettavatapi kho avuso):
he marks off (this first part of) the teaching; by way of the
attention and penetration stated in this exposition of the
courses of kamma, is what is meant. The rest is as
aforesaid. Thus he concludes the exposition by
means of the path of non-return and the path of Arahantship.
THE FOUR NUTRIMENTS
General
9. Saying, "Good, friend,"
. . . (etc.)
. . . " and has arrived
at this true Dhamma": Thus, having heard the
Venerable Sariputta's exposition of the four truths under the
heading of the wholesome and the unwholesome, the bhikkhus
delighted in his words with the statement, "Good,
friend," and rejoiced with the mind that aroused that
statement; what is meant is that they agreed by word and
approved by mind. Now, because the Elder was
competent to give an exposition on the four truths in diverse
ways -- as (the Blessed One) said:
"Bhikkhus, Sariputta is able to propound, to teach, the
Four Noble Truths in detail" (M.141/iii, 248); or
because he had said "in that way too," being
desirous of giving a further exposition, the bhikkhus, being
desirous of hearing the teaching of the four truths by
another method, asked him a further question. By
asking "But, friend, might there be another
way? Would there be another
case?" they asked another question
additional to that question asked and answered (already) by
the Venerable Sariputta himself. Or what is meant
is that they asked a question subsequent to the previous
one. Then, answering them, the Elder said,
"There might be, friends," and so on.
10. Herein, this is the elucidation of the
terms that are not clear. Nutriment (ahara)
is a condition (paccaya). For a condition
nourishes its own fruit, therefore it is called nutriment.[21]
11. Of beings that already have come to be (bhutanam
va sattanam), etc.: Here come to be (bhuta)
means come to birth, reborn; seeking a new existence (sambhavesinam)
means those who seek, search for, existence, birth,
production. Therein, among the four kinds of
generation,[22]
beings born from eggs and from the womb are said to be
"seeking a new existence" as long as they have not
broken out of the eggshell or the placenta. When
they have broken out of the eggshell or the placenta and
emerged outside, they are said to have "come to
be." The moisture-born and the spontaneously
born are said to be "seeking a new existence" at
the first moment of consciousness; from the second moment of
consciousness onwards they are said to have "come to
be."
Or alternatively, "come to be" is born,
reproduced; this is a term for those who have destroyed the
cankers (Arahants), who are reckoned thus:
"They have come to be only, but they will not come to be
again." "Seeking a new existence"
means they seek a new existence; this is a term for
worldlings and disciples in higher training who seek a new
existence in the future too, because they have not abandoned
the fetter of being. Thus by these two terms he
includes all beings in all ways.
For the maintenance (thitiya); for the purpose of
maintaining. For the support (anuggahaya):
for the purpose of supporting, for the purpose of
helping. This is merely a difference of words,
but the meaning of the two terms is one only. Or
alternatively, "for the maintenance" is for the
non-interruption of this or that being by means of the serial
connection of arisen states. "For the
support" is for the arising of unarisen
(states). And both these expressions should be
regarded as applicable in both cases thus:
"For the maintenance and support of those that have come
to be, and for the maintenance and support of those seeking a
new existence."
The Four Kinds of Nutriment
Physical food as nutriment (lit. "food
made into a ball") (kabalinkaro aharo) is
nutriment that can be swallowed after making it into a ball;
this is a term for the nutritive essence which has as its
basis boiled rice, junket, etc.[23]
Gross or subtle (olariko va sukhumo va):
it is gross because of the grossness of the basis, and subtle
because of the subtlety of the basis. But because
physical nutriment is included in subtle materiality, by way
of its individual essence it is subtle only.[24] And also that grossness and
subtlety should be understood relatively in respect of the
basis.
The nutriment of peacocks is subtle compared with the
nutriment of crocodiles. Crocodiles, they say,
swallow stones, and these dissolve on reaching their
stomachs. Peacocks eat such animals as snakes,
scorpions, etc. But the nutriment of hyenas is
subtle compared with the nutriment of peacocks.
These, they say, eat horns and bones thrown away three years
before, and these become soft as yams as soon as they are
moistened with their saliva. Also, the nutriment
of elephants is subtle compared with the nutriment of
hyenas. For these eat the branches of various
trees, etc. The nutriment of the gayal buffalo,
the antelope, the deer, etc., is subtler than the nutriment
of elephants. These, they say, eat the sapless
leaves of various kinds of trees, etc. The
nutriment of cows is subtler than their nutriment; they eat
fresh and dried grass. The nutriment of hares is
subtler than their nutriment; that of birds is subtler than
that of hares; that of barbarians is subtler than that of
birds; that of village headmen is subtler than that of
barbarians; that of kings and kings' ministers is subtler
than village headmens'; that of a Wheel-turning Monarch is
subtler than their nutriment. The earth deities'
nutriment is subtler than that of a Wheel-turning
Monarch. The nutriment of the deities of the Four
Great Kings is subtler than that of the earth
deities. Thus nutriment should be elaborated up
to that of the deities who wield power over others'
creations.[25] But saying,
"Their nutriment is subtle," the end is reached.
And here, in a basis that is gross, the nutritive essence
is limited and weak; in one that is subtle, it is
strong. Thus one who has drunk even a full bowl
of gruel is soon hungry again and desirous of eating
anything; but after drinking even a small amount of ghee, he
will not want to eat for the whole day. Therein,
it is the basis that dispels fatigue, but it is unable to
preserve; but the nutritive essence preserves, though it
cannot dispel fatigue. But when the two are
combined they both dispel fatigue and preserve.
Contact as the second (phasso dutiyo):
The sixfold contact beginning with eye-contact should be
understood as the second of these four kinds of
nutriment. And this is the method of the teaching
itself; therefore it should not be inquired into here, saying
"For this reason it is the second, or the
third." Mental volition (manosancetana):
volition (cetana) itself is stated. Consciousness (vinnanam):
any kind of consciousness whatever.
It may be asked here: "If the meaning of
condition is the meaning of nutriment, then, when other
conditions also exist for beings, why are only these four
stated?" It should be said in
reply: "It is because they are the special
conditions for personal continuity." For
physical nutriment is the special condition for the material
body of beings that eat physical nutriment; as regards the
group of mental constituents, contact is (the special
condition) for feeling, mental volition for consciousness,
and consciousness for mentality-materiality. As
it is said: "Just as, bhikkhus, this body
has nutriment for its maintenance, is maintained in
dependence on nutriment, and without nutriment is not
maintained" (S.46:2/v,64); and likewise:
"With contact as condition, feeling;
. . . with formations as
condition, consciousness;
. . . with consciousness as
condition, mentality-materiality" (S.12:1/ii,1, etc.).
What is this nutriment, and what does it
nourish? Physical nutriment nourishes the
materiality with nutritive essence as eighth;[26] contact as nutriment
nourishes the three feelings; mental volition as nutriment
nourishes the three kinds of being; consciousness as
nutriment nourishes the mentality-materiality of
rebirth-linking.
How? As soon as it is placed in the mouth,
physical food as nutriment brings into being the eight kinds
of materiality (aforesaid). Then each lump of
cooked rice ground by the teeth, on being swallowed, brings
into being unit after unit of the eight kinds of
materiality. Thus it nourishes the materiality
with nutritive essence as eighth.
But with contact as nutriment, when contact productive of
pleasant feeling arises it nourishes pleasant feeling;
contact productive of painful feeling nourishes painful
feeling; contact productive of neither-painful-nor-pleasant
feeling nourishes neither-painful-nor-pleasant
feeling. Thus in all ways contact as nutriment
nourishes the three kinds of feeling.
In the case of mental volition as nutriment, kamma leading
to sense-sphere being nourishes sense-sphere being; kamma
leading to fine-material and immaterial being nourishes its
respective kind of being. Thus in all ways mental
volition as nutriment nourishes the three kinds of being.
But with consciousness as nutriment, it is said that it
nourishes, by way of conascence condition, etc., the three
(immaterial) aggregates associated with itself at the moment
of rebirth-linking and the thirty kinds of materiality that
arise by way of triple continuity. Thus
consciousness nourishes the mentality-materiality of
rebirth-linking.[27]
And here, by the words "mental volition as nutriment
nourishes the three kinds of being," only the wholesome
and unwholesome volition accompanied by taints is meant; by
the words "consciousness nourishes the
mentality-materiality of rebirth-linking," only
rebirth-linking consciousness is meant. However,
these are to be understood indiscriminately as nutriments as
well because they nourish the states that are associated with
them and originated by them.
The Four Functions
As regards these four kinds of nutriment, physical food as
nutriment accomplishes the function of nutriment by
sustaining, contact by contacting (touching), mental volition
by accumulating, consciousness by cognizing.
How? Physical food as nutriment, by
sustaining, is for the maintenance of beings by maintaining
the body. For this body, though generated by
kamma, is sustained by physical food and stands for ten years
or a hundred years up to the end of the
life-span. Like what? Like a child
which, though given birth by the mother, is nurtured by the
milk, etc., given to him to drink by the wet-nurse and thus
lives long. Also, as a house is supported by a
prop. This too has been said
(untraced): "Great king, just as, when a
house is collapsing, they prop it up with other timber, and
that house, being propped up by other timber, does not
collapse, so too this body is supported by nutriment,
persists in dependence upon nutriment."
Thus physical food as nutriment accomplishes the function
of nutriment by sustaining. Accomplishing it
thus, physical food as nutriment becomes a condition for two
material continuities, namely, for that originated by
nutriment and that kammically acquired.[28] It is a condition for the
kamma-born materiality by becoming its preserver.
It is a condition for that originated by nutriment by
becoming its producer.
Then contact, by contacting the object which is the basis
for pleasure, etc., is "for the maintenance of
beings" by causing the occurrence of pleasant feeling,
etc. Mental volition, accumulating by way of
wholesome and unwholesome kamma, is "for the maintenance
of beings" because it provides the root of
existence. Consciousness, by cognizing, is
"for the maintenance of beings" by causing the
occurrence of mentality-materiality.
The Four Dangers
Now, while these are accomplishing their function of
nutriment by sustaining, etc., four dangers are to be
seen: the danger of desire in the case of
physical food as nutriment; the danger of approach in the
case of contact; (the danger) of accumulating in the case of
mental volition; and (the danger) of launching [into a new
existence here or there by way of taking
rebirth-linking] in the case of consciousness.
What are the reasons (for this)? Because,
having aroused desire for physical food, beings face cold,
etc., to undertake such work as checking, accounting, etc.,
and incur not a little suffering. And some who
have gone forth in this dispensation seek nutriment through
such improper means as the practice of medicine, etc., and
they are to be censured here and now, and hereafter they
become "recluse ghosts" in the manner described
thus in the Lakkhana Samyutta: "And his
outer robe was burning, blazing," etc.[29] For this reason, desire
itself is to be understood as the danger in physical food as
nutriment.
Those who approach contact, who find gratification in
contact, commit crimes in respect of others' guarded and
protected belongings, such as their wives, etc.
When the owners of the goods catch them with their
belongings, they cut them into pieces or throw them onto a
rubbish heap, or hand them over to the king; and then the
king has various tortures inflicted upon them.
And with the breakup of the body, after death, a bad
destination is to be expected for them. Thus this
entire danger -- that pertaining to the here and now and that
pertaining to the afterlife -- has come about rooted in
contact. For this reason, approach is to be
understood as the danger in the case of the nutriment
contact.
The entire danger in the three realms of existence has
come about by the accumulation of wholesome and unwholesome
kamma and is rooted in that (accumulation). For
this reason, accumulation is to be understood as the danger
in the nutriment mental volition.
And in whatever place rebirth-linking consciousness
launches (the new existence), in that same place it is reborn
by seizing the rebirth-linking
mentality-materiality. When it is produced, all
dangers are produced, for they are all rooted in
it. For this reason, launching is to be
understood as the danger in the nutriment consciousness.
The Four Similes
In regard to these nutriments with their dangers, for the
sake of eliminating desire for the nutriment physical food,
the Fully Enlightened One taught the simile of son's flesh in
the passage beginning thus: "Suppose,
bhikkhus, a couple, a man and his wife,
. . . " For the sake of
eliminating desire for the nutriment contact, he taught the
simile of the flayed cow in the passage beginning
thus: "Suppose, bhikkhus, there was a flayed
cow . . . " For the
sake of eliminating desire for the nutriment mental volition,
he taught the simile of the charcoal pit in the passage
beginning thus: "Suppose, bhikkhus, there
was a charcoal pit
. . . " And for the
sake of eliminating desire for the nutriment consciousness,
he taught the simile of the man struck with three hundred
spears in the passage beginning thus:
"Suppose, bhikkhus, there was a thief, a crook
. . . "[30]
Therein, taking the essential meaning, there follows a
brief interpretation of the meaning. A couple, it
is said, a man and his wife, took their son and set out on a
desert trail a hundred yojanas long,[31]
with only limited provisions. When they had gone
fifty yojanas their provisions ran out. Exhausted
by hunger and thirst, they sat down in some scanty
shade. Then the man said to his wife:
"My dear, for fifty yojanas on all sides there is
neither a village nor a town. Therefore, though a
man can do many kinds of work, such as plowing, guarding
cattle, etc., it is not possible for me to do
that. Come, kill me. Eat half of my
flesh, and having made the other half into provisions for the
journey, cross out of the desert together with our son."
The wife said: "Dear husband, though a
woman can do many kinds of work, such as spinning thread,
etc., it is not possible for me to do that. Come,
kill me. Eat half of my flesh, and having made
the other half into provisions for the journey, cross out of
the desert together with our son."
Then the man said: "My dear, the death of
the mother would mean the death of two, for a young boy
cannot live without his mother. But if we both
live, then we can beget another child again. Come
now, let us kill our child, take his flesh, and cross out of
this desert."
Then the mother said to the son: "Dear,
go to your father." He went, but the father
said: "For the sake of supporting this child
I incurred much suffering through such work as plowing,
guarding cattle, etc. I cannot kill the
boy. You kill your son." Then he
said: "Dear, go to your
mother." But the mother said:
"Longing for a son I incurred much suffering by
observing the cow-observance, the dog-observance, praying to
the gods, etc., not to speak of bearing him in my womb.[32] It is not possible
for me to kill him." Then she
said: "Dear, go to your father."
The boy died from going back and forth between the father
and the mother. Seeing him dead, they wept, and
having taken the flesh as described above, they
departed. Because that flesh of their son was
repulsive to them for nine reasons, it was not eaten for
enjoyment nor for intoxication nor for making (the body)
strong and beautiful, but only for the purpose of crossing
out of the desert.
For what nine reasons was it repulsive?
Because it was the flesh of their own offspring, the flesh of
a relative, the flesh of a son, the flesh of a dear son, the
flesh of a youngster, raw flesh, not beef, unsalted,
unspiced. Therefore the bhikkhu who sees the
nutriment physical food thus, as similar to son's flesh,
eliminates the desire for it.[33]
This, in the first place, is the interpretation of the
meaning of the simile of son's flesh.
Then, as regards the simile of the flayed cow:
If a cow were stripped of its skin from the neck to the
hooves and then set free, whatever it would rest upon would
become a basis of pain for it, since it would be bitten by
the small creatures living there.[34]
So too, whatever physical basis or object contact stands upon
as its support becomes a basis for the felt pain originating
from that basis or object.[35]
Therefore a bhikkhu who sees the nutriment contact thus, as
similar to a flayed cow, eliminates the desire for
it. This is the interpretation of the meaning of
the simile of the flayed cow.
Then, as regards the simile of the charcoal pit:[36] The three realms
of being are like a charcoal pit in the sense of a great
burning heat (lit., a great fever). Like the two
men who grab hold (of a weaker man) by both his arms and drag
him towards it, is mental volition in the sense that it drags
one towards the realms of being. Therefore a
bhikkhu who sees the nutriment mental volition thus, as
similar to a charcoal pit, eliminates the desire for
it. This is the interpretation of the meaning of
the simile of the charcoal pit.
Then, as regards the simile of the man struck with three
hundred spears:[37]
The hundred spears that strike the man in the morning make a
hundred wound openings in his body, and without remaining
inside they pierce through and fall on the other side; and so
with the other two hundred spears as well. Thus
his whole body is cut again and again by the spears which
come without piercing him in a place where another has
already struck. There is no measuring the pain
arisen in him from even one of the wound openings, not to
speak of three hundred wound openings.
Therein, the time of the generation of the rebirth-linking
consciousness is like the time of being struck by a
spear. The production of the aggregates is like
the production of the wound openings. The arising
of the various kinds of suffering rooted in the round (of
existence) once the aggregates have been born is like the
arising of suffering on account of the wound openings.
Another method of interpretation (is as
follows): The rebirth-linking consciousness is
like the thief. His mentality-materiality
conditioned by consciousness is like the wound openings
created by the striking of the spears. The
arising of the various kinds of suffering by way of the
thirty-two types of torture and the eighty-nine types of
diseases in regard to consciousness conditioned by
mentality-materiality -- this should be regarded as like the
arising of severe pain for that man conditioned by the wound
openings.
Therefore a bhikkhu who sees the nutriment consciousness
thus, as similar to one struck by three hundred spears,
eliminates the desire for it. This is the
interpretation of the meaning of the simile of the man struck
by three hundred spears.
Full Understanding
Thus by eliminating desire in regard to these nutriments,
he also fully understands these four nutriments.
When these have been fully understood, the entire basis (for
them) has also been fully understood. For this
has been said by the Blessed One (S.12:63/ii,99-100):
Bhikkhus, when the nutriment physical food has been
fully understood, lust for the five cords of sensual
pleasure has been fully understood. When lust
for the five cords of sensual pleasure has been fully
understood, there exists no more any fetter bound by
which the noble disciple might come back to this world.
Bhikkhus, when the nutriment contact has been fully
understood, the three feelings have been fully
understood. When the three feelings have been
fully understood, there is nothing further for the noble
disciple to do, I say.
Bhikkhus, when the nutriment mental volition has been
fully understood, the three kinds of craving have been
fully understood. When the three kinds of craving have
been fully understood, there is nothing further for the
noble disciple to do, I say.
Bhikkhus, when the nutriment consciousness has been
fully understood, mentality-materiality has been fully
understood. When mentality-materiality has
been fully understood, there is nothing further for the
noble disciple to do, I say.
The Arising and Cessation of
Nutriment
With the arising of craving there is the arising of
nutriment (tanhasamudaya aharasamudayo):
This is the meaning: "With the arising of
craving in the previous (existence) the arising of the
nutriments occurs at rebirth-linking (in this
existence)." How? Because at the
moment of rebirth-linking there is the nutritive essence
produced among the thirty types of materiality that have
arisen by way of triple continuity.[38]
This is the kammically acquired physical food as nutriment
produced by craving as its condition. But the
contact and volition associated with the rebirth-linking
consciousness, and that mind or consciousness itself -- these
are the kammically acquired nutriments of contact, mental
volition and consciousness produced by craving as their
condition. Thus, in the first place, the arising
of the nutriments at rebirth-linking should be understood as
occurring with the arising of craving in the previous
existence.
But because the nutriments that are kammically acquired
and those that are not kammically acquired have been
discussed here combined, (the principle of) the arising of
nutriment with the arising of craving should be understood to
apply also to those that are not kammically
acquired. For there is nutritive essence in the
kinds of materiality that are aroused by the eight types of
consciousness accompanied by greed;[39]
this is the nutriment physical food that is not kammically
acquired yet is produced by conascent craving as its
condition. But the contact and volition
associated with the consciousness accompanied by greed, and
that mind or consciousness itself -- these are the nutriments
of contact, mental volition and consciousness that are not
kammically acquired yet are produced by craving as their
condition.
With the cessation of craving there is cessation of
nutriment (tanhanirodha aharanirodho): By
this there is set forth the cessation of nutriment by the
cessation of the craving that had become the condition for
both nutriment that is kammically acquired and that which is
not kammically acquired. The rest (should be
understood) by the method stated, but there is this
difference. Here the four truths are stated
directly, and as here, so in all the following
sections. Therefore one who is unconfused in mind
can deduce the truths throughout in what follows.[40]
12. And in all the following sections the
delimiting phrase In that way too, friends (ettavata pi
kho avuso) should be construed according to the principle
that has been expounded. Here, in the first
place, this is the interpretation of it (in the present
context). "In that way
too": what is meant is:
"the attention and penetration stated by way of the
teaching concerning nutriment." The same
method throughout.
The Four Noble Truths
14. Now, delighting and rejoicing in the
Elder's words, after saying as before "Good,
friend," the bhikkhus asked a further question, and the
Elder answered them by another exposition. This
method is found in all the following sections.
Therefore, from here onwards, we shall explain the meaning
only of the particular exposition he states in reply, without
touching upon such words (as are already explained).
15. In the brief exposition of this teaching,
in the phrase (he) understands suffering (dukkham pajanati),
"suffering" is the truth of suffering.
But regarding the detailed exposition, whatever needs to be
said has all been said already in the Visuddhimagga in the
Description of the Truths (XVI,13-104).
Aging and Death
21. From here onwards the teaching is given by
way of dependent arising (paticca samuppada).
22. Therein, in the section on aging and
death, firstly as to the term their (tesam tesam) --
this should be understood as a collective designation in
brief for the many kinds of beings. For if one
were to state (the aging of individuals such as) the aging of
Devadatta, the aging of Somadatta, etc., one would never come
to an end of beings. But there is no being not
included by this term "their."[41] Therefore it was said
above: "This should be understood as a
collective designation in brief for the many kinds of
beings."
In the various (tamhi tamhi): This is a
collective designation for the many (different) orders by way
of destiny and birth. Orders of beings (sattanikaye):
an indication of the nature of what is designated by the
collective designation.
Aging, old age (jara jiranata), etc.:
As regards these, "aging" is the description of the
nature; "old age" is the description of the aspect;
"brokenness," etc., are descriptions of the
function with respect to the passage of time; and the last
two terms are descriptions of the normal
(process). For this is indicated as to nature by
this term aging (jara); hence this is a description of
its nature. It is indicated as to aspect by this
term old age (jiranata); hence this is a description
of its aspect. Brokenness (khandicca):
by this it is indicated as to the function of causing the
broken state of teeth and nails on account of the passage of
time. Grayness (palicca): by
this it is indicated as to the function of causing the head
hairs and body hairs to turn gray. Wrinkling (valittacata):
by this it is indicated as to the wrinkled state of the skin
after the withering of the flesh. Hence the three
terms beginning with brokenness are descriptions of function
with respect to the passage of time. By these
evident aging is shown, which becomes evident by the showing
of these alterations. For just as the course
taken by water or wind or fire is evident from the damaged
and broken state, or the burnt state, of the grass and trees,
etc., and yet the course that has been taken is not the
water, etc., itself, so too the course taken by aging is
evident through brokenness of teeth, etc., and it is
apprehended by opening the eyes, but the brokenness, etc.,
themselves are not aging, nor is aging cognizable by the eye.
Decline of life, weakness of faculties (ayuno samhani
indriyanam paripako): By these terms it is
indicated by means of the normal (process) known as the
exhaustion of the life-span and the weakening of the eye
faculty, etc., that has become manifest with the passage of
time. Hence these last two are to be understood
as descriptions of its normal (process).
Therein, because the life-span of one who has reached
aging is dwindling, aging is called "decline of
life" as a metaphor (for the cause stated in terms) of
its effect. And because the eye faculty,
etc. -- which at the time of youth were quite
clear and could easily grasp even subtle objects -- become
deficient, obscure, unable to grasp even gross objects when
one has reached old age, therefore it is called
"weakness of faculties" also as a metaphor (for the
cause stated in terms) of its effect.
This aging, thus described, is all of two kinds, evident
and concealed. Therein, the aging of material
phenomena, shown by brokenness, etc., is called evident aging
(pakatajara). But in the case of
immaterial phenomena, because their alteration in such a way
is not visible, their aging is called concealed aging (paticchannajara).
Therein, the brokenness that is seen is simply color (vanna)
because of the ease of comprehending such things as the
teeth, etc. Having seen this with the eye and
reflected on it with the mind door, one knows aging
thus: "These teeth have been afflicted by
aging," just as one knows the existence of water below
when one has noticed the heads of cows, etc., bound to the
place where the water is located.
Again, aging is twofold thus: as continuous
and as discrete. Therein, continuous aging (avicijara)
is the aging of such things as gems, gold, silver, coral, the
sun and moon, etc.; it is so called because of the difficulty
of perceiving in such things distinct changes in color, etc.,
at regular intervals, as we can in the case of living beings
passing through the decade of childhood, etc., and in the
case of vegetation (lit. non-breathing things)
such as flowers, fruits, buds, etc. The meaning
is: aging that progresses without
interval. Discrete aging (savicijara) is
the aging of the things other than those, i.e. of
the aforesaid things (living beings and vegetation); it is so
called because it is easy to perceive in them distinct
changes in color, etc., at regular intervals. So
it should be understood.
Following this (in the definition of death) the term their
(tesam tesam) should be understood by the method
stated above (in the definition of aging). Then,
in the expression passing, passing away, etc., passing (cuti)
is said by way of what has the nature to pass away; this is a
collective designation (applying) to one-, four-, and
five-aggregate (existence). Passing away (cavanata)
is the indication of the characteristic by a word expressing
the abstract state. Dissolution (bheda) is
an indication of the occurrence of the breaking up of the
aggregates (at the time) of passing.
Disappearance (antaradhana) is an indication of the
absence of any manner of persistence of the aggregates (at
the time) of passing, as they are broken like a broken pot.
Dying (maccu marana): death which is
called dying. By this he rejects the idea of
death as complete annihilation. Completion of
time (kalakiriya): time is the destroyer,
and this (completion of time) is its activity. By
this he explains death in conventional terminology.
Now, to explain death in (terms valid in) the ultimate
sense, he next says the dissolution of the aggregates (khandhanam
bhedo), etc.[42]
For in the ultimate sense it is only the aggregates that
break up; it is not any so called being that
dies. But when the aggregates are breaking up
convention says "a being is dying," and when they
have broken up convention says "(he is) dead."
Here the dissolution of the aggregates is said by way of
four- [and five-] constituent being; the laying
down of the body (kalevarassa nikkhepo) by way of
one-constituent being.[43]
Or alternatively, the dissolution of the aggregates is said
by way of four-constituent being; the laying down of the body
should be understood by way of the other two
(i.e. one- and five-constituent
being). Why? Because of the existence
of the body, that is, the material body, in those two realms
of being. Or else, because in the realm of the
Four Great Kings, etc., the aggregates simply break up and
they do not lay anything down, the dissolution of the
aggregates is said with reference to them.[44] The laying down of the body
occurs among human beings, etc. And here, because
it is the cause for the laying down of the body, death is
called the laying down of the body. Thus the
meaning should be understood.
So this aging and this death are what is called aging and
death (iti ayan ca jara idan ca maranam idam vuccat'avuso
jaramaranam): this is spoken of as
"aging and death" by combining the two into one.
Birth
26. In the section on birth, in regard to the
phrase birth, . . . their
coming to birth, etc., birth (jati) is in the sense of
being born; this is stated with reference to those
(conceived) with incomplete sense bases. Coming
to birth (sanjati) is in the sense of the act of
coming to birth; this is stated with reference to those
(conceived) with already complete sense bases.
Precipitation (or descent, okkanti) is in the sense of
being precipitated (descending). This is stated
with reference to those born from the egg and from the womb,
for they take rebirth-linking as though descending and
entering the egg shell or the placenta.
Generation (abhinibbatti) is in the sense of being
generated. This is stated with reference to those
born from moisture or those of spontaneous birth, for these
are generated as soon as they become manifest.
Now comes the exposition in (terms valid in) the ultimate
sense. Manifestation (patubhava) is the
arising. Of the aggregates (khandhanam) is
to be understood as (the arising) of one aggregate in the
one-constituent realm of being, of four aggregates in
four-constituent realms, and of five aggregates in
five-constituent realms. Obtaining (patilabha)
is the manifestation in continuity. The bases (ayatananam)
should be understood as comprising the sense bases arising
(at conception) in this or that realm. For when
the sense bases become manifest, then they are said to be
obtained.
This is called birth (ayam vuccat'avuso jati):
by this phrase he comes to the conclusion on birth taught in
both conventional terms and in the ultimate sense.
With the arising of being (bhavasamudaya):
but here one should understand kammically active being as the
condition for birth. The rest by the method
stated.
Being
30. In the section on being, sense-sphere
being (kamabhava) is kammically active being and
resultant being. Therein, kammically active being
(kammabhava) is kamma itself that leads to
sense-sphere being. For that is called
"being" as a designation of the cause in terms of
its effect, because it is the cause for resultant being, as
when it is said: "The arising of Buddhas is
bliss" and "The accumulation of evil is
painful" (Dhp. 194, 117).
Resultant being (upapattibhava) is the group of
kammically acquired aggregates produced by that
kamma. For that is called "being"
because it exists there. Thus this kamma and this
result are both spoken of conjointly as "sense-sphere
being." The same method applies to
fine-material being and immaterial being (ruparupabhava).
With the arising of clinging (upadanasamudaya):
But here clinging is a condition for wholesome kammically
active being only by way of decisive support; it is a
condition for unwholesome kammically active being by way of
both decisive support and conascence.[45]
For all resultant being it is a condition only by way of
decisive support. The rest by the method stated.
Clinging
34. In the section on clinging, in regard to
the phrase "clinging to sense pleasures," etc.,
clinging to sense pleasures (kamupadana) is analyzed
thus: by this one clings to the object of sensual
pleasure, or this itself clings to it. Or
alternatively: that is a sensual pleasure and it
is clinging, thus it is clinging to sensual
pleasure. It is firm grasping (dalhagahana)
that is called clinging. For here the prefix upa
has the sense of firmness. This is a designation
for the lust for the five cords of sensual
pleasure. This is the brief account
here. The detailed account should be understood
by the method stated thus: "Therein, what is
clinging to sensual pleasures? The sensual desire
in regard to sensual pleasures," etc.
(Dhs. Section 1214).
So too, that is a view and clinging, thus it is clinging
to views (ditthupadana). Or
alternatively: it clings to a view, or by this
they cling to a view. For the subsequent view
clings to the previous view and thereby they cling to the
view. As it is said: "Self and
the world are eternal; only this is true, anything else is
false," etc. (M.102/ii, 233).
This is a designation for the whole field of (wrong) views
except clinging to rituals and observances and clinging to a
doctrine of self. [46]
This is the brief account here. The detailed
account should be understood by the method stated
thus: "Therein, what is clinging to
views? There is nothing given," etc.
(Dhs. Section 1215).
So too, by this they cling to rituals and observances, or
this itself clings to them, or that is a ritual and
observance and clinging, thus it is clinging to rituals and
observances (silabbatupadana). For when one adheres to
the idea that the cow ritual or cow observance brings
purification, that itself is a clinging.[47] This is the brief account
here. The detailed account should be understood
by the method stated thus: "Therein, what is
clinging to rituals and observances? (The idea)
of recluses and brahmins outside here (i.e.
outside the Buddha's dispensation) that purity (is achieved)
by rules," etc. (Dhs. Section
1216).
Now they assert in terms of this, thus it is a
doctrine. By this they cling, thus it is
clinging. What do they assert? Or
what do they cling to? Self. The
clinging to a doctrine about a self is the clinging to a
doctrine of self (attavadupadana). Or
alternatively: by this a mere doctrine of self is
clung to as self, thus it is clinging to a doctrine of
self. This is a designation for personality view
with its twenty cases. This is the brief account
here. The detailed account should be understood
by the method stated thus: "Therein, what is
clinging to a doctrine of self? Here, the
uninstructed worldling who has no regard for noble
ones," etc. (Dhs. Section 1217).
With the arising of craving (tanhasamudaya):
here, craving is a condition for clinging to sensual
pleasures either by way of decisive support or by way of
proximity, contiguity, absence, disappearance and repetition.[48] But for the rest
(it is a condition) by way of conascence, etc.,
too. The rest by the method stated.
Craving
38. In the section on craving, craving for
forms . . . craving for
mind-objects (rupatanha
. . . dhammatanha):
these are names for the kinds of craving which occur in the
course of a javana cognitive process (javanavithi) in
the eye door, etc. Like a name derived from the
father, such as Setthiputta ("merchant's son") or
Brahmanaputta ("brahmin's son"), their names are
derived from the object, which is similar to the father [as
being the cause (hetu) of it only, not as is the case
with "eye-contact," which is like a name derived
from the mother in that (the eye like the mother in relation
to her son) is a cause by its nature as a physical support (nissayabhava)].
And here, craving for forms is craving that has forms as
its object, craving in regard to forms. When this
occurs by finding gratification in visible forms through its
nature as sensual lust, it is craving for sensual pleasure (kamatanha).
When it occurs by finding gratification in visible forms,
thinking "Form is permanent, lasting, eternal,"
through its nature as lust accompanied by the eternalist
view, then it is craving for being (bhavatanha).
When it occurs by finding gratification in visible form,
thinking "Form is annihilated, destroyed, and does not
exist after death," through its nature as lust
accompanied by the annihilationist view, then it is craving
for non-being (vibhavatanha). Thus it is
threefold. And as craving for form, so too
craving for sound, etc., (are each threefold
too). Thus there are eighteen modes of
craving. These eighteen in respect of internal
visible form, etc., and in respect of external visible form,
etc., come to thirty-six. So thirty-six in the
past, thirty-six in the future, and thirty-six at present
make up a hundred and eight.
Or there are eighteen based on internal form, etc.,
thus: "On account of the internal there is
(the notion) 'I am,' there is (the notion) 'I am such and
such,' " and so on; and there are eighteen based on
external form, etc., thus: "On account of
the external there is (the notion) 'I am,' there is (the
notion) 'I am such and such,' " and so on.
Thus there are thirty-six. So thirty-six in the
past, thirty-six in the future, and thirty-six at present
make up thus the hundred and eight modes of craving (tanhavicaritani;
see A. 4:199/ii, 212).
Again, when a classification is made, they reduce to only
six classes of craving -- in terms of their objects, forms
and the rest -- and to only three types of craving -- craving
for sensual pleasure and the rest. Thus:
Craving should be known by the wise
Through description and when described
In detail; it (should be known) again
Through classification of the detail.
With the arising of feeling there is the arising of
craving (vedanasamudaya tanhasamudayo):
But here the word "feeling" is intended as
resultant feeling.[49]
How is that the condition for craving in respect of the six
sense doors? Because of its ability to produce
gratification. For it is through the
gratification in pleasant feeling that beings become enamored
of that feeling, and after arousing craving for feeling and
being seized by lust for feeling, they long only for a
desirable visible form in the eye door. And on
getting it, they find gratification in it, and they honor
painters, etc., who provide such objects.
Likewise, they long only for a desirable sound, etc., in the
ear door, etc. And on getting it, they find
gratification in it, and they honor musicians, perfume
makers, cooks, spinners and the teachers of the various
crafts. Like what? Like those who,
being enamored of a child, out of love for the child honor
the wet-nurse and give her suitable ghee, milk, etc., to eat
and drink. The rest by the method stated.
Feeling
42. In the section on feeling, classes of
feeling (vedanakaya) means groups of
feeling. Feeling born of eye-contact
. . . feeling born of
mind-contact (cakkhusamphassaja vedana
. . . manosamphassaja
vedana): because of what has come down in the
Vibhanga thus: "There is feeling born of
eye-contact that is wholesome, that is unwholesome, that is
indeterminate" (Vibh. 15), the wholesome,
unwholesome and indeterminate feelings that occur in the eye
door, etc., are named after the physical base, which is
similar to a mother, just as some are named after their
mother, such as "Sariputta (Lady Sari's son),"
"Mantaniputta (Lady Mantani's son)," etc.
But the word meaning here is this: feeling
born of eye-contact (cakkhusamphassaja vedana) is
feeling that is born with eye-contact as the
cause. The same method throughout.
This, in the first place, is the all-inclusive
explanation. But by way of resultant, in the
eye-door there are two eye-consciousnesses, two mind
elements, three mind-consciousness elements; feeling should
be understood as what is associated with these.[50] This method also applies in
the ear door, etc. In the mind door, (feeling) is
associated only with the mind-consciousness elements.
With the arising of contact (phassasamudaya):
But here the arising in the five doors of the feelings that
have the five physical bases (as their support) occurs with
the arising of the conascent eye-contact. For the
rest, eye-contact, etc., are conditions by way of decisive
support. In the mind door, the arising of
feelings (on the occasion) of registration and of the
doorless feelings (on the occasions) of rebirth-linking,
life-continuum and death occurs with the arising of the
conascent mind-contact.[51]
The rest by the method stated.
Contact
46. In the section on contact, eye-contact (cakkhusamphassa)
is contact in the eye. The same method
throughout. Eye-contact
. . . body-contact (cakkhusamphasso
. . . kayasamphasso):
up to this point ten kinds of contact have been stated,
namely, the wholesome- and unwholesome-resultants having the
five physical bases (as their support).
Mind-contact (manosamphassa): by this (he
indicates) the remaining twenty-two kinds of contact
associated with the mundane resultant (types of
consciousness).[52]
With the arising of the sixfold base (salayatanasamudaya):
The arising of this sixfold contact should be understood to
occur by way of the arising of the six bases beginning with
the eye-base. The rest by the method stated.
The Sixfold Base
50. In the section on the sixfold base, as
regards the eye-base (cakkhayatana), etc., whatever
should be said has all been said already in the Visuddhimagga
in the Description of the Aggregates and in the Description
of the Bases (XIV, 37-52; XV, 1-16).
With the arising of mentality-materiality (namarupasamudaya):
But here the arising of the sixfold base should be understood
to occur from the arising of mentality-materiality according
to the method stated in the Visuddhimagga in the Description
of Dependent Arising, as to which mentality, which
materiality, and which mentality-materiality are a condition
for which base (XVII, 206-219).
Mentality-Materiality
54. In the section on mentality-materiality,
mentality (nama) has the characteristic of bending (namana);
materiality (rupa) has the characteristic of being
molested (ruppana).[53]
In the detailed section, however, feeling (vedana) is
to be understood as the feeling aggregate, perception (sanna)
as the perception aggregate, and volition, contact and
attention (cetana phasso manasikaro) as the formations
aggregate. While it is certainly the case that
other states are included in the formations aggregate, still
these three are found in all classes of consciousness, even
the weakest. That is why the formations aggregate
is here pointed out only by means of these three.
The four great elements (cattari mahabhutani):
this is a designation for the four -- earth, water, fire and
air. The reason why these are called "great
elements," and other determinations concerning them, are
all stated in the Visuddhimagga in the Description of the
Materiality Aggregate.[54]
Derived from the four great elements (catunnan ca
mahabhutanam upadaya): derived from (upadaya)
= having clung to (upadayitva); "having
grasped" is the meaning. Some also say
"depending upon" (nissaya). And
here the reading is completed by adding the word
"existing" (vattamanam). The
Pali uses the genitive (in the term for the elements) in the
sense of a group. Hence the meaning here should
be understood thus: the materiality that exists
derived from the group of the four great elements.
Thus materiality taken altogether is to be understood as
consisting of all the following: the four great
elements beginning with the earth element, and the
materiality that exists derived from the four great elements,
stated in the canonical Abhidhamma to be of twenty-three
kinds by analysis into the eye-base, etc.[55]
With the arising of consciousness (vinnanasamudaya):
But here the arising of mentality-materiality should be
understood to occur with the arising of consciousness
according to the method stated in the Visuddhimagga in the
Description of Dependent Arising, as to which consciousness
is a condition for which mentality, for which materiality,
and for which mentality-materiality (XVII,
186-202). The rest by the method stated.
Consciousness
58. In the section on consciousness,
eye-consciousness (cakkhuvinnana) is consciousness in
the eye or consciousness born from the eye. So
also with ear-, nose-, tongue- and
body-consciousness. But with the other one,
i.e. mind-consciousness (manovinnana),
mind itself is consciousness. This is a
designation for the resultant consciousness of the three
(mundane) planes of existence except for the two groups of
fivefold consciousness.[56]
With the arising of formations (sankharasamudaya):
But here the arising of consciousness should be understood to
occur with the arising of formations according to the method
stated in the Visuddhimagga, as to which formation is a
condition for which consciousness (XVII, 175-185).
Formations
62. In the section on formations, a formation
(sankhara) has the characteristic of forming (abhisankharanalakkhana).
But in the detailed section, the bodily formation (kayasankhara)
is a formation that proceeds from the body. This
is a designation for the twenty kinds of bodily volition --
the eight sense-sphere wholesome and twelve unwholesome --
that occur by way of activation in the bodily door.[57] The verbal
formation (vacisankhara) is a formation that proceeds
from speech. This is a designation for the (same)
twenty kinds of verbal volition that occur by way of breaking
into speech in the door of speech. The mental
formation (cittasankhara) is a formation that proceeds
from the mind. This is a designation for the
twenty-nine kinds of mental volition -- the mundane wholesome
and unwholesome -- that occur in one sitting alone in
thought, and which do not cause activation of the bodily and
verbal doors.[58]
With the arising of ignorance (avijjasamudaya):
But here ignorance should be understood as a condition for
the wholesome by way of decisive support and for the
unwholesome by way of conascence as well. The
rest by the method stated.
Ignorance
66. In the section on ignorance, not knowing
about suffering (dukkhe annanam) means not knowing
about the truth of suffering. This is a
designation for delusion (moha). The same
method with respect to "not knowing about the origin of
suffering," and so on.
Herein, not knowing about suffering should be understood
in four ways: as to containment (antogadhato), as to
physical basis (vatthuto), as to object (arammanato),
and as to concealment (paticchadanato).
Thus, because of being included in the truth of suffering, it
("not knowing" or ignorance) is contained in
suffering; and the truth of suffering is its physical basis
by being its support condition; and (the truth of suffering)
is its object by being its object condition; and it conceals
the truth of suffering by preventing the penetration of its
real characteristic and by not allowing knowledge to occur in
regard to it.
Not knowing about the origin (of suffering) should be
understood in three ways: as to physical basis,
as to object, and as to concealment. And not knowing about
cessation and the way (to cessation) should be understood in
one way only: as to concealment. For
non-knowledge only conceals cessation and the way by
preventing the penetration of their real characteristics and
by not allowing knowledge to occur in regard to
them. But it is not contained in them because it
is not included in this pair of truths. And these
two truths are not its physical basis because they are not
conascent. Nor are they its object because of its
non-occurrence on account of them. For the last
pair of truths are difficult to see because of their
profundity, and non-knowledge, which is blind, does not occur
there. But the first (pair of truths) is profound
in the sense of opposition because of the difficulty in
seeing the characteristic of their intrinsic nature; it
occurs there by way of obsession by the perversions.
Furthermore: About suffering (dukkhe):
to this extent ignorance is indicated as to inclusion, as to
physical basis, as to object, and as to function.
About the origin of suffering (dukkhasamudaye):
to this extent, as to basis, as to object, and as to
function. About the cessation of suffering (dukkhanirodhe)
and about the way leading to the cessation of suffering (dukkhanirodhagaminiya
patipadaya): to this extent, as to
function. But without distinction, (in each
instance) ignorance is described in terms of its intrinsic
nature by the phrase "not knowing."
With the arising of the taints (asavasamudaya):
But here the taint of sensual desire and the taint of being
are conditions for ignorance by way of conascence, etc.; the
taint of ignorance, only by way of decisive
support. And here the ignorance that had arisen
previously should be understood as the taint of
ignorance. That is a decisive support condition
for the ignorance that arises subsequently. The
rest by the method stated.
The Taints
70. In the section on the taints, with the
arising of ignorance (avijjasamudaya):
Here ignorance is a condition for the taint of sensual desire
and the taint of being by way of decisive support, etc.; (it
is a condition) for the taint of ignorance only by way of
decisive support. And here the ignorance that
arises subsequently should be understood as the taint of
ignorance. The previously arisen ignorance itself
becomes a decisive support condition for the subsequently
arisen taint of ignorance. The rest by the
aforesaid method.
This section is stated by way of showing the condition for
the ignorance which heads the factors of dependent
arising. Stated thus, the undiscoverability (anamataggata)
of any beginning of samsara is established.
How? Because with the arising of the taints there
is the arising of ignorance, and with the arising of
ignorance there is the arising of the taints.
Thus the taints are a condition for ignorance, and ignorance
is a condition for the taints. Having shown this,
(it follows that) no first point of ignorance is manifest,
and because none is manifest the undiscoverability of any
beginning of samsara is proven.[59]
Conclusion
Thus in all this sutta sixteen sections have been
stated: the section on the courses of kamma, the
section on nutriment, the section on suffering, and the
sections on aging and death, birth, being, clinging, craving,
feeling, contact, the sixfold base, mentality-materiality,
consciousness, formations, ignorance and the taints.
As to these, in each individual section there is a twofold
analysis -- in brief and in detail -- amounting to thirty-two
cases. Thus in this sutta, in these thirty-two
cases, the Four (Noble) Truths are expounded.
Among these, in the sixteen cases stated in detail,
Arahantship is expounded.
But according to the opinion of the Elder, the four truths
and the four paths are expounded in the thirty-two cases.[60] Thus in the entire
Word of the Buddha comprised in the five great Nikayas, there
is no sutta except for this Discourse on Right View where the
Four (Noble) Truths are explained thirty-two times and where
Arahantship is explained thirty-two times.
That is what the Venerable Sariputta said (idam
avoc'ayasma Sariputto): The Venerable
Sariputta spoke this Discourse on Right View, having adorned
it with sixty-four divisions -- thirty-two expositions of the
four truths and thirty-two expositions of
Arahantship. The bhikkhus were satisfied and
delighted in the Venerable Sariputta's words.
In the Papancasudani, the Commentary to
the Majjhima Nikaya, the Explanation of the Discourse on
Right View is concluded.
Notes:
1. The term sammaditthi is
ordinarily used to mean simply a state, the path factor of
right view. Here, however, the Pali expression is
used as a masculine noun to mean, in the first instance, a
person possessing right view; hence it has been rendered
"one of right view." The commentator
contrasts this unusual usage of the term with the more common
usage where sammaditthi signifies a state (dhamma),
that is, the path factor rather than the individual endowed
with that state. [^]
2. The knowledge of kamma as
one's own (kammassakatanana) is often expressed in the
Suttas thus: "I am the owner of my kamma,
the heir of my kamma, I spring from my kamma, I am bound to
my kamma, I have kamma as my refuge. Whatever
kamma I perform, good or bad, of that I am the
heir." In short, it is knowledge of the
moral efficacy of action, of the fact that one's willed deeds
fashion one's destiny. Knowledge in conformity
with the truths (saccanulomikanana) is conceptual
knowledge of the Four Noble Truths, accompanied by
understanding and acceptance of them. [^]
3. The understanding or wisdom
(panna) connected with the paths and fruits is
supramundane because its object is the supramundane dhamma,
Nibbana, and because it leads to the overcoming of the world.
[^]
4. A disciple in higher
training (sekha) is one at any of the three lower
levels of sanctity -- a stream-enterer, once-returner, or
non-returner -- or one who has reached their respective
paths. His right view is said to be fixed in
destiny (niyata) because it necessarily leads to final
liberation. [^]
5. The "one beyond
training" (asekha) is the Arahant, so called
because he has completed the threefold training in virtue,
concentration and wisdom. [^]
6. The ninefold supramundane
Dhamma: the four paths, the four fruitions, and
Nibbana. [^]
7. The interpretation of
"the bhikkhus" and "the Elder" is offered
by Sub. Cy., which also presents an alternative
interpretation, based on the commentary to the Vatthupama
Sutta (M.7) according to which the bhikkhus are the pupils of
the Elder Mahasangharakkhita and "the Elder" is the
Elder Mahasangharakkhita. [^]
8. See commentary to the third
parajika offence. [^]
9. See commentary to the
second parajika offence. [^]
10. The meaning of several of
these terms, obscure in the original Pali, has been
elaborated with the aid of the Sub. Cy. [^]
11. Consent (adhivasana)
is included to cover the case where one of the partners is
initially an unwilling victim of another's assault, but
during the course of union consents to the act and thereby
becomes a participant. [^]
12. These are references to
the two great classics of Hindu India, the Mahabharata and
the Ramayana. [^]
13. Wrong views of fixed
destiny (niyata micchaditthi) are views which deny the
moral efficacy of action or which tend to undermine the
foundations of morality. For the most common
examples, see D.2/i, 52-56, and M.76/i, 515-18. [^]
14. The chief factor in the
first seven courses of kamma is volition; the other three
courses are identical with the mental factors of greed,
hatred and wrong view, which are associated with volition in
the states of consciousness in which they arise. [^]
15. This refers to the
Abhidhamma classification of consciousness, according to
which wholesome sense-sphere consciousness is of eight types,
four associated with knowledge, four dissociated from
knowledge. The abstinences, according to the
Abhidhamma, occur in sense-sphere consciousness only one at a
time on occasions when one deliberately abstains from some
wrong. In supramundane consciousness all three
abstinences -- right speech, right action and right
livelihood -- occur together simultaneously. [^]
16. Right view is synonymous
with the mental factor of wisdom (panna) or
non-delusion (amoha); it is always accompanied by the
other two wholesome roots, though the latter do not
necessarily occur in conjunction with right view. [^]
17. Literally, or in the
strict sense (nippariyayena), only covetousness and
greed, being synonyms of craving (tanha), count as the
origin of suffering. But in a looser or
figurative manner of exposition (pariyayena) all the
roots are the truth of the origin, since as roots of kamma
they help to sustain the round of rebirth and suffering. [^]
18. The guideline of
conversion (avattahara) is one of the methods of
deduction in the exegetical guide, the
Nettippakarana. According to this guideline, an
expositor of a sutta is to extract from a particular text a
standard doctrinal concept belonging to a dichotomy, and then
taking this concept as a basis, he is to show that the other
member of the dichotomy is also implied by the passage under
consideration, and therefore "turns up" when the
first member is mentioned. [^]
19. The path of non-return (anagamimagga)
is stated because this path eradicates all sensual lust and
aversion. [^]
20. The path of Arahantship
is implied by the eradication of conceit and ignorance and by
the arousing of true knowledge. [^]
21. The verb aharati
normally means "to bring," but here it is rendered
as "nourish" to underscore its connection with ahara,
nutriment. [^]
22. On the four yoni
or modes of generation, see M.12/i, 73. [^]
23. According to the
Abhidhamma, the nutriment proper is the material phenomenon
called nutritive essence (oja), while the solid food
ingested is the mere "basis" (vatthu) of the
nutritive essence. [^]
24. The point is that while
in conventional terms food substances are distinguished as
gross or subtle, this distinction is made in terms of the
physical base only. The Abhidhamma classifies
nutritive essence as subtle materiality (sukhumarupa);
it contrasts with gross materiality (olarikarupa),
which includes only the five sense organs and their objects.
[^]
25. This is the highest realm
among the sense-sphere heavens. Above this come
the Brahma realms, where physical nutriment is non-existent.
[^]
26. This is the simplest kind
of material group (rupakalapa) recognized by the
Abhidhamma theory of matter. It consists of the
four primary elements, along with color, smell, taste, and
nutritive essence. All the more complex material
groups also contain these eight phenomena as their
foundation. Material groups in a living organism
require an input of nutriment in order to endure in
continuity. [^]
27. Conascence condition (sahajatapaccaya)
is the condition whereby the conditioning state contributes
to the arising or maintenance of another state, the
conditionally arisen state, when the latter arises
simultaneously with itself. Consciousness is a
conascence condition for the three other mental aggregates --
feeling, perception and mental formations -- both at rebirth
and during the course of life. At rebirth it is
also a conascence condition for the "triple
continuity," i.e. the three material decads
of body-sensitivity, sexual determination and the
heart-base. Each of these consists of the
above-mentioned eight material units along with physical life
and, as the tenth factor, the material phenomenon after which
it is named. [^]
28. Kammically acquired
materiality (upadinnarupa) is matter that is born of
kamma. It includes the physical sense faculties,
the life faculty, masculinity, femininity, and the coexisting
material phenomena in the same group. Though such
types of matter are produced by kamma rather than by
nutriment, they require nutriment to sustain them in
continuity. [^]
29. The Lakkhana Samyutta
(S.19/ii, 254-62) describes the torments experienced by
beings in the realm of the petas or "afflicted
spirits." [^]
30. These similes are taken
from the Puttamamsa Sutta, the Discourse on Son's Flesh
(S.12:63/ii, 97-100). See Nyanaponika Thera, The
Four Nutriments of Life (BPS Wheel No. 104/105,
1967), pp. 19-40, for the sutta along with its
commentary. [^]
31. A yojana is about
seven miles. [^]
32. The cow-observance and
the dog-observance are forms of self-mortification which
ascetics of the Buddha's time practiced in the hope of
purification; see M.57/i, 387. Apparently, women
also observed them for short periods in the hope they would
make them fertile. [^]
33. The commentary to the
Puttamamsa Sutta develops this analogy in greater detail than
the present commentary. [^]
34. The sutta elaborates as
follows: If the cow stands, the creatures in the
air attack it; if it leans against a wall, the creatures in
the wall attack it; if it lies down, the creatures in the
ground attack it; if it enters a pool of water, the creatures
in the water attack it. [^]
35. Contact arises from the
coming together of an object, a physical basis or sense
faculty (vatthu), and the corresponding type of
consciousness. [^]
36. The simile as given in
the sutta is this: Two strong men grab hold of a
weaker man by both arms and drag him towards a blazing
charcoal pit. He wriggles and struggles to get
free because he knows that if he is thrown into the pit, he
will meet death or deadly pain. [^]
37. The king's men arrest a
thief and bring him before the king. The king
orders him struck with a hundred spears in the morning,
another hundred at noon, and a third hundred in the
evening. The man survives but experiences deadly
pain. [^]
38. See note 27. [^]
39. The eight types of
consciousness accompanied by greed are distinguished by the
presence or absence of wrong view, by their accompanying
feeling which may be pleasant or neutral, and by whether they
are spontaneous or prompted. [^]
40. The principle of the Four
Noble Truths can be discerned in the format of the
exposition: a particular item X, the arising of
X, the cessation of X, and the way to the cessation of X. [^]
41. In Pali the repetition tesam
tesam, lit. "of them, of them," is
understood to imply complete inclusiveness. The
same applies to tamhi tamhi, "in that, in
that," just below. [^]
42. Whereas the previous
definitions were framed in conventional terminology, those
valid in the ultimate sense (paramatthato) define
their subject solely in terms of "ultimate
realities" such as aggregates and sense bases. [^]
43. The various realms of
existence are analyzed as threefold on the basis of the
number of aggregates existing there.
One-constituent being is the non-percipient realm (asannibhumi),
which includes only the aggregate of material
form. Four-constituent being is the four
immaterial realms, which contain the four mental aggregates
but not the aggregate of material form.
Five-constituent being comprises all other realms, in which
all five aggregates are present. [^]
44. It seems that in the
sense-sphere heavens, at death the beings simply dissipate
into thin air, without leaving behind any corpse. [^]
45. Decisive support
condition (upanissayapaccaya) and conascence condition
(sahajatapaccaya) are the two chief conditions among
the twenty-four conditions of the Patthana or Abhidhammic
system of conditional relations. Decisive support
holds between a conditioning state and a conditioned state
that it helps to arise across an interval of
time. Conascence condition holds between a
conditioning state and a conditioned state that arise
simultaneously. See also note 27 above. [^]
46. Clinging to rituals and
observances and clinging to a doctrine of self are both types
of wrong view, but as they are enumerated as individual kinds
of clinging in their own right, they are not included under
clinging to views. [^]
47. See above, note 32. [^]
48. These are conditional
relations that hold between successive mind-moments in the
javana phase of a single cognitive process (cittavithi).
[^]
49. Resultant feeling alone
is intended here because this is an exposition of the round
of existence, and in the formula of dependent arising the
factors from consciousness through feeling are classified as
the resultant phase of the round. [^]
50. The two eye-consciousness
elements are the wholesome-resultant and the
unwholesome-resultant; the two resultant mind elements are
the wholesome-resultant and the unwholesome-resultant
receiving consciousness (sampaticchanacitta); the
three resultant mind-consciousness elements are three types
of investigating consciousness (santiranacitta). [^]
51. The registration
consciousness (tadarammanacitta) is a resultant type
of consciousness that occurs through any of the sense
doors. Its function is to register the datum that
had been the object of the preceding javana
series. The rebirth, life-continuum (bhavanga)
and death consciousnesses are resultants that are considered
to be "doorless" (advarika) because they
occur at an inner subliminal level, not through the
intercourse of sense organs and sense objects. [^]
52. This refers to the
Abhidhamma classification of thirty-two types of resultant
consciousness, of which twenty-two remain besides the ten
types of sense-consciousness, five resultants of the
unwholesome and five of the wholesome. The
details are not necessary here. [^]
53. These two definitions
involve word plays difficult to reproduce in
English. Ven. Nanamoli has a note suggesting,
half flippantly, "minding" for namana and
"mattering" for ruppana. [^]
54. In fact the Visuddhimagga
discusses the four great elements not in its chapter on the
Description of the Aggregates (Ch. XIV), but in
the chapter on the meditation subject called the definition
of the elements (Ch. XI). [^]
55. Some instances of derived
materiality are: the five sense faculties, color,
sound, smell, taste, the life faculty, sexual determination,
nutritive essence, space, etc. [^]
56. The three planes of
existence were enumerated in Section 30. Only
resultant consciousness is taken into account here because
this is an exposition of the round. [^]
57. The figures for the types
of consciousness again come from the Abhidhamma.
These types of consciousness can come to expression either
through the door of bodily action or the door of speech, or
they can remain within and not gain outer expression. [^]
58. The nine types of
volition which do not come to expression by body or speech
are the five volitions of the five fine-material-sphere
jhanas and the four of the four immaterial-sphere jhanas. [^]
59. Elsewhere the Buddha
says: "A first point of ignorance cannot be
discovered, of which it can be said: Before that
there was no ignorance and it came to be after that"
(A.10:61/v,113). In that sutta the Buddha cites
the five hindrances as the condition for ignorance, but as
these in turn presuppose ignorance, the vicious cycle is
again established. [^]
60. For the identity of the
dissenting Elder, see Section 3 and note 7. [^]