Zolag 2011
First edition published in 2011 by
Zolag
◯c Nina van Gorkom
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Chapter 1: Introduction to the Abhidhamma 1
The Buddha taught conventional truth, sammutti sacca, and ultimate truth, paramattha
sacca. The Commentary to the “Middle Length Sayings”, sutta 5, “No Blemishes”, states:
“There is a twofold teaching of the Buddha, the Blessed One: the teaching in
the conventional way and the teaching by way of ultimate realities. There is a
human, a being, a woman, a man, a man of the warrior caste, a brahman, a
god, and Mara. Such is the teaching in the conventional way. Impermanence,
dukkha, anatt¯a, the aggregates, elements, sensefields (¯ayatana), satipat.t.h¯ana.
Such is the teaching by way of ultimate realities. Here the Blessed One taught
to those in the conventional way who by means of it, after having heard the
teaching , penetrated the meaning and abandoned ignorance, and were skilled
to attain distinction. But who by means of ultimate realities, after having
heard the teaching, penetrated the meaning and abandoned ignorance, and were
skilled to attain distinction, to those he taught by way of ultimate realities.”
In the Suttanta we find the teaching in conventional way, but also the teaching by way
of ultimate realities. When the Buddha spoke in the suttas about situations and people,
he pointed to the truth of impermanence, dukkha and anatt¯a. He knew the dispositions of
different beings and which kind of teaching was most suitable for them. The teaching of
the Abhidhamma is mainly by way of ultimate realities, paramattha dhammas. In order
to have understanding of the Abhidhamma it is essential to know the difference between
ultimate realities, paramattha dhammas, and concepts, pan~n~atti, such as a person or a tree.
Chapter 2: Ultimate Truth and Conventional Truth 2
Through the Buddhist teachings we learn that what we take for “self”, for “our mind”
and for “our body”, consists of changing phenomena. That part of the Buddhist teachings
which is the “Abhidhamma” enumerates and classifies all phenomena of our life: mental
phenomena or n¯ama and physical phenomena or ru¯pa. Seeing is n¯ama, it experiences
visible object through the eye-door. Visible object or colour is ru¯pa, it does not experience
anything. The eyesense, that functions as the eye-door through which visible object is
experienced, is also ru¯pa. The ru¯pas that are sense objects, namely, visible object, sound,
smell, flavour and tangible object, and also the ru¯pas that are the sense organs of eyes, ears,
nose, tongue and bodysense, are conditions for the n¯amas to experience objects. N¯ama
and ru¯pa are interrelated. N¯ama and ru¯pa are ultimate realities. We should know the
difference between ultimate truth, paramattha sacca, and conventional truth, sammutti
sacca. Ultimate truth is not abstract. Ultimate realities, in P¯ali: paramattha dhammas,
have each their own characteristic which cannot be changed. We may change the name,
but the characteristic remains the same. Seeing is an ultimate reality, it experiences visible
object which appears through the eyes; it is real for everyone, it has its own unalterable
characteristic. Anger has its own characteristic, it is real for everyone, no matter how we
name it. Ultimate realities can be directly experienced when they appear through eyes,
ears, nose, tongue, bodysense or mind. They arise because of their appropriate conditions.
Conventional truth is the world of concepts such as person, tree or animal. Before we learnt
about Buddhism, conventional truth, the world of concepts, was the only truth we knew.
It is useful to examine the meaning of concept, in P¯ali: pan~n~atti. The word concept can
stand for the name or term that conveys an idea and it can also stand for the idea itself
conveyed by a term. Thus, the name “tree” is a concept, and also the idea we form up of
“tree” is a concept. We can think of concepts, but they are not realities that can be directly
experienced, without having to name them.
Chapter 3: Dhamma in Detail 3
In all three parts of the Tipit.aka we are taught about “dhamma”, about everything which
is real. Seeing is a dhamma, it is real. Colour is a dhamma, it is real. Feeling is a
dhamma, it is real. Our defilements are dhammas, they are realities. When the Buddha
attained enlightenment he clearly knew all dhammas as they really are. He taught us the
“Dhamma”, the teaching on realities, in order that we also may know dhammas as they
are. Without the Buddha’s teaching we would be ignorant of reality. We are inclined to
take for permanent what is impermanent, for pleasant what is sorrowful and unsatisfactory
(dukkha), and for “self” what is non-self. The aim of all three parts of the Tipit.aka is to
teach people the development of the way leading to the end of defilements. In the Suttanta,
the “Discourses”, the Dhamma is explained to different people at different places on various
occasions. The Buddha taught about all realities appearing through the “six doors” of eyes,
ears, nose, tongue, bodysense and mind. He taught about cause and effect and about the
practice leading to the end of all sorrow. As regards the Abhidhamma, this is an exposition
of all realities in detail. The prefix “abhi” is used in the sense of “preponderance” or
“distinction”. “Abhidhamma” means “higher Dhamma” or “Dhamma in detail”. The form
of this part of the Tipit.aka is different, but the aim is the same: the eradication of wrong
view and eventually of all defilements. Thus, when we study the many enumerations of
realities, we should not forget the real purpose of our study. The intellectual understanding
of realities (pariyatti) should encourage us to the practice (pat.ipatti) which is necessary
for the realization of the truth (pat.ivedha). While we are studying the different mental
phenomena (n¯amas) and physical phenomena (ru¯pas) and while we are pondering over them,
we can be reminded to be aware of the n¯ama and ru¯pa which appear at that moment. In
this way we will discover more and more that the Abhidhamma explains everything which
is real, that is, the “worlds” appearing through the six doors of the senses and the mind.
Chapter 4: Abhidhamma in the Sutta 4
In the Anguttara Nik¯aya, Book of the Ones (Ch VIII, 4) we read about right understanding
as being the most precious in life - that which doesn’t bring sorrow:
“Of slight account, monks, is the loss of such things as relatives. Miserable
indeed among losses is the loss of wisdom. Of slight account, monks, is the
increase of such things as relatives. Chief of all the increases is that of wisdom...
Of slight account, monks, is the loss of such things as wealth. Miserable indeed
among losses is the loss of wisdom. Of slight account, monks, is the increase of
such things as wealth. Chief of all the increases is that of wisdom. “Of slight
account, monks, is the loss of such things as reputation. Miserable indeed among
losses is the loss of wisdom. Of slight account, monks, is the increase of such
things as reputation. Chief of all the increases is that of wisdom. Wherefore I
say, monks, you should train yourselves thus: We will increase in wisdom. You
must train yourselves to win that.”
This sutta is an exhortation to develop right understanding of realities. Understanding
of realities is the most precious in life, as the above-quoted sutta states. Sutta reading is
not easy and we have to carefully consider each word of the sutta. We have to know what
kind of understanding is meant in this sutta. The Buddha pointed to the development
of understanding of all realities in daily life, no matter he taught Sutta or Abhidhamma.
The Abhidhamma helps us to understand the deep meaning of the suttas. We may be
inclined to overlook the implications of the meaning of understanding, when we read that
understanding is the most precious of all. We have to know what kind of understanding,
understanding of which objects. Also in the suttas the Buddha teaches to develop right
understanding of ultimate realities, but in the suttas the Buddha mostly speaks about
people’s situations in daily life, about their clinging to pleasant objects, and the sorrow
caused by clinging. He spoke in conventional terms in order to help people to understand
what is true in the ultimate sense. Whatever reality arises does so because of the proper
conditions. The conditioned realities of our life are citta, consciousness, cetasika, mental
factors arising with the citta and ru¯pa, physical phenomena. These are three conditioned
paramattha dhammas. There is no person, no self who sees, clings, feels sadness; there
are only n¯ama, mental phenomena, and physical phenomena, ru¯pa. In the above-quoted
sutta we are reminded that right understanding is more precious than people we hold
dear or possessions. It is the understanding that whatever occurs in life, be it pleasant
or unpleasant, are only conditioned dhammas. When we suffer the loss of dear people we
should remember that also sadness is a conditioned dhamma, a cetasika, mental factor,
arising with akusala citta. It only lasts for one moment, it falls away and then there is a
next moment of consciousness. At the moment of seeing there is no sadness at the same
time; seeing experiences a different object: visible object. Each citta only experiences one
object at a time. Through the Abhidhamma we are reminded all the time that there is no
person who clings, no person who suffers, that only citta and the accompanying cetasikas
experience different objects, be these unpleasant or pleasant. There is no person who
develops understanding; understanding, pan~n~a¯, is a cetasika that can only arise when there
are the appropriate conditions for it. The Abhidhamma is not a theory one finds in a
textbook; the teaching of the Abhidhamma is about all the realities that appear at this
moment. The Abhidhamma teaches about seeing, about thinking of what was seen, about
Chapter 4: Abhidhamma in the Sutta 5
all the defilements arising on account of what is experienced through the senses and the
mind-door.
Chapter 5: Citta 6
The truth is different from what we always assumed. What we take for a person are only
n¯amas, mental phenomena, and ru¯pas, physical phenomena, that arise and fall away. N¯ama
and ru¯pa are real in the ultimate sense, they are different from concepts such as person or
animal. Citta, consciousness, and cetasika, mental factor arising with the citta, are both
n¯ama. They experience different objects.
It is not a self or a person who experiences something, it is citta that cognizes an object.
Citta experiences only one object and then it falls away to be succeeded by the next citta.
We may have thought that there is one consciousness that lasts, that can see, hear and think,
but this is not so. Only one citta arises at a time: at one moment a citta that sees arises,
at another moment a citta that hears arises. Each citta lasts only for an extremely short
time and then it falls away. The five senses and the mind are the doorways through which
citta can cognize the different objects which present themselves. Each citta experiences
an object, in P¯ali: ¯aramman. a. Knowing or experiencing an object does not necessarily
mean thinking about it. The citta which sees has what is visible as object; it is different
from the cittas which arise afterwards, such as the cittas which know what it is that was
perceived and which think about it. The citta which hears (hearing-consciousness) has
sound as its object. Even when we are sound asleep and not dreaming, citta experiences
an object. There isn’t any citta without an object. There are many different types of citta
which can be classified in different ways. Some cittas are kusala (wholesome), some are
akusala (unwholesome). Kusala cittas and akusala cittas are cittas which are cause; they
can motivate wholesome or unwholesome deeds through body, speech or mind which are
able to bring about their appropriate results. Some cittas are the result of wholesome or
unwholesome deeds, they are vip¯akacittas. Some cittas are neither cause nor result; they
are kiriyacittas (sometimes translated as “inoperative”). Cittas can be classified by way of
j¯ati (j¯ati literally means “birth” or “nature”). There are four j¯atis:
kusala
akusala
vip¯aka
kiriya
Both kusala vip¯aka (the result of a wholesome deed) and akusala vip¯aka (the result of
an unwholesome deed) are one j¯ati, the j¯ati of vip¯aka. It is important to know which j¯ati a
citta is. We cannot develop wholesomeness in our life if we take akusala for kusala or if we
take akusala for vip¯aka. For instance, when someone speaks unpleasant words to us, the
moment of experiencing the sound (hearing-consciousness) is akusala vip¯aka, the result of
an unwholesome deed we performed ourselves. The aversion which may arise very shortly
afterwards is not vip¯aka, but it arises with akusala citta. Aversion or anger, dosa, can
motivate unwholesome action or speech. We can learn to distinguish these moments from
each other by realizing their different characteristics. When we have understood that cittas
both of ourselves and others arise because of conditions we shall be less inclined to dwell
for a long time on someone else’s behaviour. In the ultimate sense there is no person to
be blamed and no person who receives unpleasant results. In reality there are only citta,
cetasika and ru¯pa that arise because of their own conditions.
Chapter 6: Citta and Cetasikas 7
Citta does not arise singly, it is always accompanied by cetasikas, mental factors. Only one
citta arises at a time and each citta is accompanied by several cetasikas. Citta is the leader
in cognizing an object and the accompanying cetasikas have each their own function while
they assist citta in cognizing an object. Citta may be of one of the four j¯atis of kusala,
akusala, vip¯aka or kiriya. Cetasikas are of the same j¯ati as the citta they accompany. Some
cetasikas, such as feeling and remembrance or “perception” (san~n~a¯), accompany each citta,
others do not. Feeling, in P¯ali: vedan¯a, is a cetasika which arises with every citta. Citta
only knows or experiences its object; it does not feel. Feeling, vedan¯a, however, has the
function of feeling. Feeling is sometimes pleasant, sometimes unpleasant. When we do not
have a pleasant or an unpleasant feeling, there is still feeling: at that moment the feeling is
neutral or indifferent. Perception or remembrance, in P¯ali: san~n~a¯, marks the object so that
it can be recognized later on. Whenever we remember something it is san~n~a¯, not self, which
remembers. It is san~n~a¯ which, for example, remembers that this colour is red, that this is a
house, or that this is the sound of a bird. Contact, in P¯ali: phassa, is another cetasika which
arises with every citta; it “contacts” the object so that citta can experience it. There are also
types of cetasika which do not arise with every citta. Unwholesome mental factors, akusala
cetasikas, accompany only akusala cittas, whereas sobhana cetasikas, “beautiful” mental
factors, accompany kusala cittas. Among the cetasikas which can accompany akusala cittas
or kusala cittas, some are roots, hetus. A root or hetu is the foundation of the akusala
citta or kusala citta, just as the roots are the foundation of a tree. They give a firm
support to the citta and cetasikas they arise together with. There are three cetasikas which
are unwholesome roots, akusala hetus: attachment (lobha), aversion (dosa) and ignorance
(moha). Akusala cittas may be rooted in moha and lobha, or in moha and dosa, or they may
have moha as their only root. Moha arises with each akusala citta. Moha is blindness, it
does not know the danger of akusala; it is the root of all evil. There are three sobhana hetus,
beautiful roots: non-attachment (alobha), non-aversion (adosa), and wisdom (pan~n~a¯). All
kusala cittas are rooted in non-attachment and non-aversion, and they may or may not
be rooted in wisdom, pan~n~a¯. There are many shades and degrees of the akusala hetus
and the sobhana hetus. Akusala citta is impure and it leads to sorrow. At the moment
of akusala citta there is no confidence in wholesomeness; one does not see that akusala
citta is impure and harmful. For example, when we see a pleasant sight, akusala cittas with
attachment tend to arise. At such a moment there is “unwise attention” to the object which
is experienced; we are enslaved to that object and do not see the danger of akusala. Thus
we go on accumulating more and more akusala. We may find it difficult to see that even
when we do not harm or hurt others, the citta can still be akusala. For example, when we
like nature, there is a degree of attachment and attachment is not kusala, it is different from
unselfishness. We may see the danger of akusala which is coarse, but it is difficult to see the
danger of akusala which is more subtle. However through the study of the Dhamma we can
acquire more understanding of akusala dhammas and then we may begin to see the danger
of all degrees of akusala. Whenever the citta is not intent on wholesomeness, we act, speak
or think with akusala citta. We may not have unkind thoughts or thoughts of coarse desire,
but the cittas which think can still be akusala cittas; they are akusala cittas whenever we
do not think wholesome thoughts. We think time and again of people, of things which have
happened or will happen, and we should find out for ourselves when thinking is kusala and
when akusala. When the citta is kusala, there is confidence in wholesomeness. Confidence,
Chapter 6: Citta and Cetasikas 8
or faith, saddh¯a, is a sobhana cetasika. Each kusala citta is assisted by many sobhana
cetasikas. When we see the value of kusala, there are conditions for the arising of kusala
citta. Kusala citta is pure and it is capable of producing a pleasant result. Defilements and
wholesome qualities are cetasikas, they are non-self. They are not listed just to be read
and memorized, they are realities of daily life and they can be known as they are by being
mindful of them.
Chapter 7: Kamma and result 9
As we have seen, three cetasikas are unwholesome roots, akusala hetus: attachment (lobha),
aversion (dosa) and ignorance (moha). Three cetasikas are beautiful roots, sobhana hetus:
non-attachment,(alobha), non-aversion, (adosa) and wisdom (pan~n~a¯). Unwholesome roots,
akusala hetus, can motivate ill deeds through body, speech or mind. Ill deeds are called in
P¯ali: akusala kamma. Kamma is the cetasika (mental factor arising with the citta) which
is intention or volition, in Pali: cetan¯a. However, the word “kamma” is also used in a more
general sense for the deeds which are intended by cetan¯a. The term kamma-patha (literally
“course of action”) is used as well in this sense. There are akusala kamma-pathas and
kusala kamma-pathas, ill deeds and good deeds, accomplished through body, speech and
mind. As regards akusala kamma-patha, there are ten akusala kamma-pathas and these
are conditioned by lobha, dosa and moha. They are: killing, stealing, sexual misbehaviour,
lying, slandering, rude speech, frivolous talk, covetousness, ill-will and wrong view (dit.t.hi).
Beautiful roots, sobhana hetus, motivate good deeds such as generosity, abstention from
ill deeds, mental development which includes samatha and vipassan¯a. Whatever conduct
we follow in daily life is conditioned by the wholesome or unwholesome roots accumulated
from life to life. There is no self who can determine to do wrong or to do what is right,
it is conditioned by the roots and many other factors. Each moment, whatever we do, is
conditioned. When we are generous, helping others or paying respect, we may believe that
there are only kusala cittas. However, what we take for wholesome may be motivated by
akusala, such as conceit or being intent on some advantage for ourselves. Kusala cittas and
akusala cittas alternate in our life. This shows how deeply rooted defilements are. Kamma
is a mental activity which can be accumulated. Since cittas that arise and fall away succeed
one another in an unbroken series, the force of kamma is carried on from one moment of citta
to the next moment of citta, from one life to the next life. In this way kamma is capable
to produce its result later on. A good deed, kusala kamma, can produce a pleasant result,
and an evil deed can produce an unpleasant result. Kamma produces result at the first
moment of life: it produces rebirth-consciousness in a happy plane of existence such as the
human plane or a heavenly plane, or in an unhappy plane of existence such as a hell plane
or the animal world. Throughout our life kamma produces seeing, hearing and the other
sense-impressions that are vip¯akacittas, cittas that are results. Vip¯akacittas are neither
kusala cittas nor akusala cittas. Seeing a pleasant object is the result of kusala kamma and
seeing an unpleasant object is the result of akusala kamma. If there is right understanding
of the citta that is cause and the citta that is result we shall know the meaning of anatt¯a.
We shall come to understand that there is no self who can cause the arising of pleasant or
unpleasant experiences through the senses. Due to kamma gain and loss, praise and blame
alternate in our life.
Chapter 8: Rootless Cittas 10
Each citta experiences an object. There is not only one type of citta, but there is a great
diversity of cittas that experience objects. If we want to know ourselves we should not merely
know the moments of akusala cittas or kusala cittas but other moments as well. Kusala
cittas and akusala cittas are cittas that are cause, they can motivate good or evil deeds, and
these deeds can produce their appropriate results later on. Kusala cittas and akusala cittas
are accompanied by cetasikas that are roots, hetus. As we have seen, three of these hetus are
akusala; they are: lobha (attachment), dosa (aversion) and moha (ignorance). Three hetus
are sobhana (beautiful); they are: alobha (greedlessness or generosity), adosa (non-hate or
loving kindness) and amoha (pan~n~¯a or wisdom). The citta or cetasika which is accompanied
by a hetu is sahetuka (“sa” means “with”). For example, dosa-mu¯la-citta, citta rooted in
dosa, is sahetuka; moha and dosa are the hetus which arise with dosa-mu¯la-citta. There are
also cittas that are rootless, ahetuka. There are many ahetuka cittas arising in a day. Seeing,
hearing, smelling, tasting and the experience of tangible object through the bodysense are
ahetuka vip¯akacittas. Nobody can cause the arising of seeing, hearing or the other sense-
cognitions; they are the results of kamma, a deed performed in the past. An evil deed
produces akusala vip¯akacitta and a good deed produces kusala vip¯akacitta. Seeing that is
akusala vip¯akacitta experiences an unpleasant object and seeing that is kusala vip¯akacitta
experiences a pleasant object. Of each of the five sense-cognitions (seeing, etc.) there are
two kinds experiencing an object through one of the five sense-doors: one is ahetuka akusala
vip¯aka and one is ahetuka kusala vip¯aka. Thus, there are five pairs of ahetuka vip¯akacittas
which arise depending on the five sense-doors. These five pairs are called in Pali: dvi-pan~ca-
vin~n~a¯n. a (two times five vin~n~a¯n. a). When a pleasant or an unpleasant object impinges on
the eyesense, seeing-consciousness only experiences what appears through the eyes, there is
no like or dislike yet of the object. Seeing-consciousness is an ahetuka vip¯akacitta. Cittas
which like or dislike the object arise later on; these are sahetuka cittas (arising with hetus).
Seeing is not the same as thinking of what is seen. When one uses the word “seeing” one
usually means: paying attention to the shape and form of something and knowing what it
is, such as a person or a thing. However, there must also be a kind of citta which merely
sees visible object, and this citta does not know anything else. What is seen we can call
“visible object” or “colour”; what is meant is: what appears through the eyes. Whenever
we see, hear, smell, taste or experience tangible object through the bodysense, there are
ahetuka vip¯akacittas before akusala cittas or kusala cittas arise. The citta which dislikes
the object may arise afterwards. This citta is “sahetuka”, with hetus (roots); it is akusala
citta rooted in dosa, aversion, and it is accompanied by unpleasant feeling. Or the citta
which likes the object may arise; this citta is also “sahetuka”, rooted in lobha, attachment,
and it may be accompanied by pleasant feeling or by indifferent feeling. We are inclined to
think that the “five pairs” (dvi-pan~ca-vin~n~a¯n. a), such as seeing or hearing, can occur at the
same time as like or dislike of the object, but this is not so. Different cittas arise at different
moments and the feelings which accompany the cittas are different too; these realities arise
each because of their own conditions and they are non-self.
Chapter 9: The Experience of Objects through different doorways 11
Seeing is an ahetuka vip¯akacitta that experiences visible object through the eye-door. Hear-
ing is an ahetuka vip¯akacitta that experiences sound through the ear-door. Each of the
sense-cognitions experiences an object through the appropriate doorway. There is not only
one citta that experiences visible object, or one citta that experiences sound, but each
of the sense-cognitions arises in a series or process of cittas succeeding one another and
sharing the same object. They all cognize the same object, but they each perform their
own function. Seeing is preceded by the eye-door adverting-consciousness, which adverts
to visible object. It does not see but it merely turns towards the visible object that has
just impinged on the eyesense1This citta is an ahetuka kiriyacitta (inoperative citta), it
is not akusala citta, not kusala citta and not vip¯akacitta. Seeing, which is an ahetuka
vip¯akacitta, is succeeded by two more ahetuka vip¯akacittas which do not see but still cog-
nize visible object that has not fallen away yet. They perform a function different from
seeing while they cognize visible object. Visible object is ru¯pa and it lasts longer than
citta. These cittas are receiving-consciousness (sampat.icchana-citta), that receives visi-
ble object and investigating-consciousness (sant¯ıran. a-citta), that investigates the object.
The investigating-consciousness is succeeded by the determining-consciousness (votthapana-
citta), which is an ahetuka kiriyacitta. This citta is followed by seven javana-cittas that
are, in the case of non-arahats kusala cittas or akusala cittas. There is a fixed order in
the cittas arising within a process and nobody can change this order. There is no self who
can determine whether the determining-consciousness will be succeeded by akusala cittas
or kusala cittas. Cittas arise and fall away succeeding one another extremely rapidly and
nobody can make kusala citta arise at will. Kusala performed in the past is a condition
for the arising of kusala at present. When the sense-door process of cittas is finished, the
sense object experienced by those cittas has also fallen away. Very shortly after the sense-
door process is finished, a mind-door process of cittas begins, which experience the sense
object which has just fallen away. Although it has fallen away, it can be object of cittas
arising in a mind-door process. The first citta of the mind-door process is the mind-door
adverting-consciousness (mano-dvar¯avajjana-citta) which adverts through the mind-door
to the object which has just fallen away. The mind-door adverting-consciousness is neither
akusala citta nor kusala citta; it is an ahetuka kiriyacitta. After the mind-door adverting-
consciousness has adverted to the object it is succeeded by either kusala cittas or akusala
cittas (in the case of non-arahats), which experience that same object. When visible object
is experienced through the mind-door the cittas only know visible object, they do not pay
attention to shape and form or think of a person or a thing. But time and again there are
also other mind-door processes of cittas which think of people or things and then the object
is a concept, not visible object. The experience of visible object conditions the thinking of
concepts of people and things which arises later on. All the time sense objects impinge on
the different doorways. They appear just for a moment, and then they fall away. The Bud-
dha pointed out the dangers of being infatuated with the objects we experience through the
six doors. He taught people to develop the wisdom which knows the realities experienced
through the six doors as n¯ama and ru¯pa, phenomena which are impermanent and non-self.
1 The five-sense-door adverting-consciousness (pan~ca-dv˚ar˚avajjana-citta) turns towards the object through
one of the five sense-doors. It is named after the relevant sense-door, such as eye-door adverting-
consciousness or ear-door adverting-consciousness.
Chapter 9: The Experience of Objects through different doorways 12
What is impermanent is “dukkha”, it cannot be happiness. When we come to know things
as they are, we will be less infatuated with objects.
Chapter 10: Life-continuum, bhavanga-citta 13
There are moments when there are no sense-impressions, when one does not think, when
there are no akusala cittas or kusala cittas. Even when there are no sense-impressions
and no thinking there must be citta; otherwise there would be no life. The type of citta
which arises and falls away at those moments is called bhavanga-citta. Bhavanga literally
means “factor of life”; bhavanga is usually translated into English as “life-continuum”. The
bhavanga-citta keeps the continuity in a lifespan, so that what we call a “being” goes on
to live from moment to moment. That is the function of the bhavanga-citta. There are
countless bhavanga-cittas arising at those moments when there are no sense-impressions,
no thinking, no akusala cittas or kusala cittas. When we are asleep and dreaming akusala
cittas and kusala cittas arise, but even when we are in a dreamless sleep there still has to
be citta. There are bhavanga-cittas at such moments. Also when we are awake countless
bhavanga-cittas arise; they arise in between the different processes of citta. It seems that
hearing, for example, can arise very shortly after seeing, but in reality there are different
processes of citta and in between these processes bhavanga-cittas arise. When an object
contacts one of the five senses the stream of bhavanga-cittas is interrupted and a sense-
cognition arises. However, there cannot be a sense-cognition immediately. When sound, for
example, impinges on the earsense, there is not immediately hearing. There are still some
bhavanga-cittas arising and falling away before the five-sense-door adverting-consciousness
(pan~ca-dv¯ar¯avajjana-citta) adverts to the sound through the ear-door and hearing arises.
The bhavanga-cittas do not perform the function of adverting to the sound which contacts
the earsense, they do not experience the sound. They have their own function which is
keeping the continuity in a lifespan. In the “Atthas¯alin¯ı”, the commentary to the first book
of the Abhidhamma, the Dhammasangan˙ i, the parable of the Mango is given, explaining a
process of cittas after the stream of bhavanga has been arrested. We read (Expositor, 271,
part X, no 2, Discourse on the moral result of the sensuous realm) that a man went to sleep
under a mango-tree. A ripe mango fell down, grazing his ear. Awakened by the sound he
looked, stretched out his hand, took the fruit, squeezed it, smelt it and ate it. We read:
“What does this simile signify? The function of the object striking the sentient
organism. When this happens there is the function of adverting by the five
doors just agitating the life-continuum, the function of just seeing by visual
cognition, of just receiving the object by the resultant mind-element (receiving-
consciousness], of just the examining of the object by the resultant element of
mind-cognition (investigating-consciousness), the determining of the object by
the inoperative element of mind-cognition (the kiriyacitta which is determining-
consciousness). But verily only the apperception (the series of javana-cittas)
enjoys the taste of the object.”
Processes of cittas occur at this moment: seeing, attachment to what is seen, thinking
about it and taking it for a person or thing. It seems that when there is seeing we think at
the same time of a person or thing, but each citta cognizes only one object at a time. It is
beneficial to learn about the different processes of cittas that succeed one another extremely
rapidly. When one has not studied the Dhamma one confuses the different doorways and
the different objects, one “joins” them together. One is inclined to believe that there is a
self who coordinates all the different expriences. In reality there are only different cittas
arising because of their appropriate conditions that experience different objects one at a
Chapter 10: Life-continuum, bhavanga-citta 14
time. When we look at people they seem to last, and this is because we think for a long
time of shape and form of people and of things. There are many different moments of
thinking and these fall away. Thinking is a paramattha dhamma, but the concepts that are
the objects of thinking are not paramattha dhammas. We can learn to discern when we are
in the world of concepts and when in the world of paramattha dhammas.
Chapter 11: Feelings (part 1) 15
We think of ourselves as having happy feeling or unhappy feeling. We take feeling for some-
thing lasting and we take it for my feeling. In reality feeling is a cetasika accompanying each
and every citta. It arises with the citta it accompanies and then it falls away immediately.
Feeling experiences the same object as the citta it accompanies, but it is different from citta
that is the leader in cognizing an object. Feeling experiences the object in its own way, it
experiences the flavour of the object. There is no moment without feeling. Feelings are
manifold and they can be classified in different ways. When there is not pleasant feeling or
unpleasant feeling, there is indifferent feeling. When mental feelings and bodily feelings are
taken into account, feelings can be classified as fivefold:
pleasant bodily feeling (sukha)
painful bodily feeling (dukkha)
happy feeling (somanassa)
unhappy feeling (domanassa)
indifferent feeling (upekkh¯a)
Feeling is different as it accompanies cittas of the four j¯atis (classes) of kusala, akusala,
vip¯aka or kiriya. Somanassa, happy feeling, can arise with cittas of all four jatis: with
kusala citta, akusala citta, vip¯akacitta and kiriyacitta. It is important to know of which
j¯ati feeling is, otherwise we are misled by our feelings. When we have happy feeling, we may
believe that this is kusala, but most of the time it accompanies akuala citta rooted in lobha,
attachment. When somanassa accompanies lobha-mu¯la-citta (citta rooted in attachment),
somanassa is also akusala. There can be pleasant feeling when one likes a pleasant visible
object, a beautiful sound, a fragrant odour, a delicious taste, a soft touch or an agreeable
thought. When we enjoy delicious food with pleasant feeling, that feeling is different from
pleasant feeling arising when we appreciate someone else’s kusala. In the latter case it
is more refined and calm. There are many sobhana cetasikas accompanying kusala citta:
calm, evenmindedness, confidence in kusala, mindfulness. They all condition the pleasant
feeling that is kusala. Somanassa can accompany kusala citta, but it does not accompany
each kusala citta. When we perform d¯ana (generosity), observe s¯ıla ( morality) or apply
ourselves to mental development, there can be somanassa or upekkh¯a, indifferent feeling,
with the kusala citta. When we give a present to someone else with pleasant feeling, we
may think that there is one kind of feeling which lasts, but in reality there are different
moments of feeling accompanying different cittas. There can be a moment of pure generosity
accompanied by pleasant feeling, but many moments of attachment are bound to arise after
the kusala cittas have fallen away. We may be attached to the person we give to or to the
thing we give, or we may expect something in return; we want to be liked by the person
who receives our gift. Such moments of attachment may be accompanied by somanassa.
Somanassa which is kusala and somanassa which accompanies lobha are different kinds of
somanassa arising closely one after the other, and it is difficult to distinguish one from the
other. It seems that there is one kind of somanassa and that it lasts. In reality there are
many different moments of somanassa.
Chapter 12: Feelings (part 2) 16
Domanassa, unhappy feeling, arises only with cittas of the j¯ati which is akusala; it always
arises with dosa-mu¯la-citta, citta rooted in aversion, and it does not arise with lobha-mu¯la-
citta, citta rooted in attachment, nor with moha-mu¯la-citta, citta rooted in ignorance.
When we see someone else suffer, we have compassion and want to help him. However,
kusala cittas and akusala cittas arise closely one after the other. We may be sad because
of someone else’s suffering and then akusala citta rooted in dosa, aversion, arises. This is
accompanied by unhappy feeling. At such a moment there is no compassion, but we may
not notice this.
Upekkh¯a, indifferent feeling, is different from somanassa and from domanassa; it is neither
happy nor unhappy. Upekkh¯a can arise with cittas of all four j¯atis, but it does not arise with
every citta. Indifferent feeling can accompany lobha-mu¯la-citta.When we walk or when we
get hold of different things we use in our daily life, such as a pen or a book, there is bound
to be clinging even when we do not feel particularly glad. We cling to life and we want to
go on living and receiving sense-impressions. Seeing, hearing, smelling and tasting which
are vip¯akacittas experiencing a pleasant or unpleasant object, are always accompanied by
indifferent feeling. Often it is not known whether the object experienced by these cittas was
pleasant or unpleasant, they fall away immediately. When a pleasant or unpleasant tangible
object is experienced through the bodysense, the body-consciousness, which is vip¯akacitta,
is not accompanied by indifferent feeling but by pleasant bodily feeling or by painful bodily
feeling. The impact of tangible object on the bodysense is more intense than the impact
of the other sense objects on the corresponding senses. Pleasant bodily feeling and painful
bodily feeling are n¯ama. We can call them “bodily feeling” because they are conditioned by
impact on the bodysense. When, for example, temperature which is just the right amount
of heat or cold impinges on the bodysense the body-consciousness which experiences it is
accompanied by pleasant bodiIy feeling. Body-consciousness is vip¯akacitta and in this case
kusala vip¯akacitta. When it experiences a pleasant object, it is the result of kusala kamma,
a wholesome deed, and when it experiences an unpleasant object, it is the result of akusala
kamma, an unwholesome deed. We attach great importance to feeling, we let ourselves be
carried away by the feelings which arise on account of pleasant or unpleasant objects we
experience through the senses. The Buddha classified feeling as a separate khandha because
people cling very much to feeling. We are enslaved to our feelings, but they are only realities
which arise because of the appropriate conditions and do not last.
Chapter 13: The four Great Elements 17
Ru¯pas, material phenomena, are not mere textbook terms, they are realities that can be
directly experienced. Ru¯pas do not know or experience anything; they can be known by
n¯ama. Ru¯pa arises and falls away, but it does not fall away as quickly as n¯ama. When a
characteristic of ru¯pa such as hardness impinges on the bodysense it can be experienced
through the bodysense by several cittas arising in succession within a process. But even
though ru¯pa lasts longer than citta, it falls away again, it is impermanent. Ru¯pas do not
arise singly, they arise in units or groups. What we take for our body is composed of
many groups or units, consisting each of different kinds of ru¯pa, and the ru¯pas in such a
group arise together and fall away together. There are four kinds of ru¯pa, the four “Great
Elements” (Mah¯a-bhu¯ta ru¯pas), which have to arise together with each and every group of
ru¯pas, no matter whether these are ru¯pas of the body or ru¯pas outside the body. The types
of ru¯pa other than the four Great Elements depend on these four ru¯pas and cannot arise
without them. They are the following ru¯pas:
the Element of Earth (pat.hav¯ıdh¯atu) or solidity
the Element of Water (¯apodh¯atu) or cohesion
the Element of Fire (tejodh¯atu) or heat
the Element of Wind (v¯ayodh¯atu) or motion
Earth, Water, Fire and Wind do not in this context have the same meaning as in con-
ventional language, neither do they represent conceptual ideas as we find them in different
philosophical systems. In the Abhidhamma they represent ultimate realities, specific ru¯pas
each with their own characteristic. The element of earth, pat.hav¯ı dh¯atu, translated into
English as “solidity” or “extension”, has the characteristic of hardness or softness. It can
be directly experienced when we touch something hard or soft. We do not have to name
this ru¯pa “element of earth” in order to experience it. It is an element that arises and falls
away; it has no abiding substance, it is devoid of a “self”. We take softness and hardness
of the body for self, but these are only elements arising because of conditions. It may seem
that hardness can last for some time, but in reality it falls away immediately. The hardness
that is experienced now is already different from the hardness that arose a moment ago.
The element of earth appears as hardness or softness; the element of fire as heat or cold;
the element of wind as motion or pressure. These three elements can be experienced by
touch. The element of water cannot be experienced through touch, but only through the
mind-door. When we touch what we call water, cold which is the element of fire, or hard-
ness, which is the element of earth, can be directly experienced. Every day we experience
a great variety of sense objects, but they are, in fact, only different compositions of ru¯pa
elements. When we touch a cushion or chair, tangible object may appear, such as hardness
or softness. We used to think that a cushion or chair could be experienced through touch.
When we are more precise, it is hardness or softness that can be experienced through touch.
Because of remembrance of former experiences we can think of a cushion or chair and we
know that they are named “cushion” or “chair”. This example can remind us that there is a
difference between ultimate realities and concepts we can think of but which are not real in
the ultimate sense. Viewing the body and the things around us as different combinations of
ru¯pas may be new to us. Gradually we shall realize that ru¯pas are not abstract categories,
but that they are realities appearing in daily life.
Chapter 14: The Eight Inseparable Ru¯pas 18
Ru¯pas always arise in groups, and the four Great Elements of solidity, cohesion, temperature
and motion are always present wherever there is materiality. Apart from these four elements
there are other ru¯pas, namely twentyfour “derived ru¯pas” (in P¯ali: up¯ad¯a ru¯pas). The
derived ru¯pas cannot arise without the four Great Elements, they are dependent on them.
Four among the derived ru¯pas always arise together with the four Great Elements in every
group of ru¯pas and are thus present wherever materiality occurs, no matter whether ru¯pas
of the body or materiality outside the body. These four ru¯pas are the following:
visible object (or colour)
odour
flavour
nutrition
The four Great elements and these four derived ru¯pas, which always arise together, are
called the “inseparable ru¯pas” (in P¯ali: avinibbhoga ru¯pas). Wherever solidity arises, there
also have to be cohesion, temperature, motion, colour, odour, flavour and nutritive essence.
Visible object has as its proximate cause the four Great Elements because it cannot arise
without them. However, when a characteristic of one of these four Great Elements, such
as hardness or heat, is experienced, the accompanying visible object cannot be experienced
at the same time. Only one ru¯pa at a time can be experienced by citta. When there are
conditions for seeing, visible object is experienced. When we close our eyes, there may be
remembrance of the shape and form of a thing, but that is not the experience of visible
object. The thinking of a “thing”, no matter whether our eyes are closed or open, is different
from the actual experience of what is visible. Odour cannot arise alone, it needs the four
Great Elements which arise together with it and it is also accompanied by the other ru¯pas
included in the eight inseparable ru¯pas. When odour appears we tend to be carried away
by like or dislike. We are attached to fragrant odours and we loathe nasty smells. However,
odour is only a reality which is experienced through the nose and it does not last. Flavour
is another ru¯pa included in the eight inseparable ru¯pas. We are attached to food and we
find its flavour very important. As soon as we have tasted delicious flavour, attachment
tends to arise. We are forgetful of the reality of flavour which is only a kind of ru¯pa. When
we recognize what kind of flavour we taste, we think about a concept, but this thinking is
conditioned by the experience of flavour through the tongue. Nutrition is another kind of
ru¯pa which has to arise with every kind of materiality. It can be exerienced only through the
mind-door. Nutritive essence is not only present in rice and other foods, it is also present
in what we call a rock or sand. It is present in any kind of materiality. Insects are able
to digest what human beings cannot digest, such as, for example, wood. If one does not
develop understanding of realities one will be enslaved by all objects experienced through
the senses. On account of these objects akusala cittas tend to arise. If someone thinks that
there is a self who can own what is seen, touched or smelt, he may be inclined to commit
unwholesome deeds such as stealing. In reality all these objects are insignificant, they arise
and then fall away immediately. In the ultimate sense life exists only in one moment, the
present moment. At the moment of seeing the world of visible object is experienced, at the
moment of hearing the world of sound, and at the moment of touching the world of tangible
object. Life is actually one moment of experiencing an object.
Chapter 15: The Sense organs 19
For the experience of objects through the senses there have to be sense organs and these are
ru¯pas. Visible object and also the ru¯pa which is eyesense are conditions for seeing. Eyesense
does not know anything since it is ru¯pa, but it is a necessary condition for seeing. Eyesense
is a ru¯pa in the eye, capable of receiving visible object, so that citta can experience it. For
hearing, the experience of sound, there has to be earsense, a ru¯pa in the ear, capable of
receiving sound. There must be smellingsense for the experience of odour, tastingsense for
the experience of flavour and bodysense for the experience of tangible object. Through the
bodysense are experienced: the earth element, appearing as hardness or softness; the fire el-
ement, appearing as heat or cold; the wind element, appearing as motion or pressure. When
these characteristics appear they can be directly experienced wherever there is bodysense.
The bodysense is all over the body, also inside the body. Thus, there are five kinds of sense
organs. These sense organs can be the doorways for the cittas that experience sense objects.
As we have seen, visible object, sound, odour, flavour and tangible object (which consists
of three of the four Great Elements) are experienced through the corresponding sense-doors
and they can also be experienced through the mind-door. Ru¯pas of the body and also ru¯pas
outside the body do not arise without there being conditions for their arising. There are
four factors that produce ru¯pas of the body: kamma, citta, temperature (the element of
heat) and nutrition. As we have seen, kamma is actually the volition that motivates good
and evil deeds. Kamma that has been committed has fallen away, but since it is a mental
activity it is accumulated and can produce result later on. Throughout our life kamma
produces seeing, hearing and the other sense-impressions that are vip¯akacittas, cittas that
are results. Rebirth-consciousness is the mental result of kamma, vip¯akacitta, but at that
moment kamma also produces ru¯pas and kamma keeps on producing ru¯pas throughout life;
when it stops producing ru¯pas our life-span has to end. Kamma produces particular kinds
of ru¯pas such as the sense organs. Citta also produces ru¯pas. Our different moods become
evident by our facial expressions and then it is clear that citta produces ru¯pas. Temperature,
which is actually the element of heat, also produces ru¯pas. Throughout life the element
of heat produces ru¯pas. Nutrition is another factor that produces ru¯pas. When food has
been taken by a living being it is assimilated into the body and then nutrition can produce
ru¯pas. Some of the groups of ru¯pas of our body are produced by kamma, some by citta,
some by temperature and some by nutrition. The four factors which produce the ru¯pas of
our body support and consolidate each other and keep this shortlived body going. If we
see the intricate way in which different factors condition the ru¯pas of our body we shall be
less inclined to think that the body belongs to a self. There are not only ru¯pas of the body,
there are also ru¯pas which are the material phenomena outside the body. What we take for
rocks, plants or houses are ru¯pas and these originate from temperature. We may wonder
whether there are no other factors apart from the element of heat that contribute to the
growth of plants, such as soil, light and moisture. It is true that these factors are the right
conditions that have to be present so that a plant can grow. But what we call soil, light
and moisture are, when we are more precise, different combinations of ru¯pas, none of which
can arise without the element of heat or temperature that produces them. Ru¯pas outside
the body are only produced by temperature, not by kamma, citta or nutrition.
Chapter 16: The Five Khandhas 20
All that is real can be classified as four ultimate realities, paramattha dhammas: as citta,
cetasika, ru¯pa and nibb¯ana. Citta, cetasika and ru¯pa are conditioned realities that arise and
fall away and nibb¯ana is the unconditioned element that does not arise and fall away. All
conditioned realities that arise and fall away can be classified as five khandhas, aggregates.
The five khandhas are not different from the three paramattha dhammas which are citta,
cetasika and ru¯pa. The five khandhas are:
Ru¯pakkhandha, all physical phenomena
Vedan¯akkhandha, feeling (vedan¯a)
San~n~a¯kkhandha, remembrance or “perception” (san~n~a¯)
San˙ kh¯arakkhandha, comprising fifty cetasikas (mental factors arising with the citta)
Vin~n~a¯n. akkhandha, comprising all cittas
As regards the fifty-two kinds of cetasika which may arise with citta, they are classi-
fied as three khandhas: the cetasika which is feeling (vedan¯a) is classified as one khandha;
the cetasika which is remembrance or “perception” (san~n~a¯) is classified as one khandha;
as regards the other fifty cetasikas, they are classified altogether as one khandha, the
khandha of formations, san˙ kh¯ar¯akkhandha. For example, in san˙ kh¯arakkhandha are in-
cluded cetasikas such as volition or intention (cetan¯a), attachment (lobha), aversion (dosa),
ignorance (moha), loving kindness (mett¯a), generosity (alobha) and wisdom (pan~n~a¯). All
defilements and all good qualities are included in san˙ kh¯ar¯akkhandha, they are impermanent
not “self”. San˙ kh¯ar¯akkhandha is sometimes translated as “activities” or “mental forma-
tions”. As regards citta, all cittas are one khandha: vin~n~a¯n. akkhandha. Thus, one khandha
is ru¯pakkhandha and the other four khandhas are n¯amakkhandhas. Three n¯amakkhandhas
are cetasika and one n¯amakkhandha is citta. Anything which is khandha does not last;
as soon as it has arisen it falls away again. Although khandhas arise and fall away, they
are real; we can experience them when they present themselves. The khandhas arise and
fall away all the time. When seeing arises, there is vin~n~a¯n. akkhandha, and there are the
accompanying cetasikas: vedan¯akkhandha, san~n~a¯khandha, san˙ kh¯arakkhandha (including
cetasikas apart from feeling and san~n~a¯), and there is eyesense which is ru¯pa-kkhandha.
Thus, the khandhas are: citta, cetasika and ru¯pa arising at this moment. We do not have
to name them in order to know them, they each have their own characteristic that can be
realised without naming. Thinking arises shortly after seeing has fallen away, but we may
be confused about different cittas and take seeing and thinking together. Thus, it seems
that we see immediately a person or a tree, but these are concepts we think about, they
are not seen through the eyesense. Seeing sees only what is visible and it is different from
thinking. At the moment of thinking there are five khandhas, but these are different from
the khandhas that arose at the moment of seeing. We may think of a person or tree with
clinging and wrong view. The citta that thinks is vin~n~a¯n. akkhandha, and there are the
accompanying cetasikas: vedan¯akkhandha, san~n~a¯khandha and san˙ kh¯arakkhandha in which
are now included clinging and wrong view. Moreover there is a ru¯pa that is the physical
base of thinking. Cittas arise and fall away so rapidly that it is difficult to distinguish dif-
ferent cittas from each other. It seems that there is one citta performing different functions
at the same time. We take seeing and thinking for my seeing and thinking. We read in
the “Kindred Sayings” (III, 140, translated by Ven. Bodhi) that the Buddha, while he was
dwelling at Ayojjh¯a, said to the monks:
Chapter 16: The Five Khandhas 21
“Bhikkhus, suppose that this river Ganges was carrying along a great lump
of foam. A man with good sight would inspect it, ponder it, and carefully
investigate it, and it would appear to him to be void, hollow, insubstantial. For
what substance could there be in a lump of foam? So too, bhikkhus, whatever
kind of form there is, whether past, future or present, internal or external, gross
or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near: a bhikkhu inspects it, ponders it,
and carefully investigates it, and it would appear to him to be void, hollow,
insubstantial. For what substance could there be in form?”
The Buddha then goes on to make the same observation by way of similes on the four
n¯amakkhandhas of feeling, perception, volitional formations and conscious-ness. When we
take the khandhas as a “whole” of a person, we have wrong view of self. Thus, when we
fail to see the different characteristics of naama and ruupa when they appear one at a time,
we take them for a self or a person.
Chapter 17: The World 22
The study of the different kinds of n¯ama and ru¯pa and the various conditions for their arising
will help us to understand that they are anatt¯a. Gradually we shall come to understand
that all our experiences in life, all the objects we experience, our bodily movements and
our speech are only conditioned n¯ama and ru¯pa. In the planes of existence where there are
n¯ama and ru¯pa, n¯ama conditions ru¯pa and ru¯pa conditions n¯ama in different ways. The
ru¯pas that are sense objects and the ru¯pas that can function as sense-doors are conditions
for the different cittas arising in processes which experience sense objects. The study of
ru¯pas can help us to have more clarity about the fact that only one object at a time
can be experienced through one of the six doors. Visible object, for example, can be
experienced through the eye-door, it cannot be experienced through the body-door, thus,
through touch. Seeing-consciousness experiences what is visible and body-consciousness
experiences tangible object, such as hardness or softness. Through each door the appropriate
object can be experienced and the different doorways should not be confused with one
another. When we believe that we can see and touch a flower, we think of a concept. A
concept or conventional truth can be an object of thought, but it is not a paramattha
dhamma, an ultimate reality with its own inalterable characteristic. When we are thinking
about the world and all people in it, we only know the world by way of conventional truth.
It seems that there is the world full of beings and things, but in reality there is citta
experiencing different dhammas arising and falling away very rapidly. Only one object at
a time can be cognized as it appears through one doorway. Without the doorways of the
senses and the mind the world could not appear. So long as we take what appears as a
‘whole’, a being or person, we do not know the world. We read in the “Kindred Sayings”
(IV, Sal.¯ayatana vagga, Kindred Sayings on Sense, Second Fifty, Ch I, 68, Samiddhi sutta)
that when the Buddha was staying near R¯ajagaha, in Bamboo Grove, Samiddhi came to
see him and adressed him:
“ ‘The world! The world!’ is the saying, lord. Pray, lord, to what extent is there
the world or the concept of ‘world’ ?” “Where there is eye, Samiddhi, visible
object, seeing-consciousness, where there are dhammas cognizable by the eye,
there is the world and the concept of ‘world’.” (The same is said with regard to
the other doorways.) In our life happy moments and sad moments alternate.
We attach great importance to our experiences in life, to our life in this world,
but actually life is extremely short, lasting only as long as one moment of citta.
We read in the “Visuddhimagga” (VI, 39) : “Life, person, pleasure, pain - just
these alone Join in one conscious moment that flicks by. Ceased aggregates
of those dead or alive Are all alike, gone never to return. No [world is] born
if [consciousness is] not Produced; when that is present, then it lives; When
consciousness dissolves, the world is dead: The highest sense this concept will
allow (Nd.1,42).”
Chapter 18: Death and Rebirth 23
What is birth, and what is it actually that is born? We speak about the birth of a child, but
in fact, there are only n¯ama and ru¯pa which are born. The word “birth” is a conventional
term. We should consider what birth really is. In order to understand what causes birth
we should know what conditions the n¯ama and ru¯pa which arise at the first moment of
a new lifespan. The citta which arises at that moment is called the rebirth-consciousness
or pat.isandhi-citta. Pat.isandhi means relinking, it “links” the previous life to the present
life. It is usually translated as rebirth-consciousness, but, since there is no person who is
reborn, birth-consciousness would be more correct. Since there isn’t any citta which arises
without conditions, the pat.isandhi-citta must also have conditions. The pat.isandhi-citta
is the first citta of a new life and thus its cause can only be in the past. One may have
doubts about past lives, but how can people be so different if there were no past lives?
We can see that people are born with different tendencies and talents. Cittas which arise
and fall away succeed one another and thus each citta conditions the next one. The last
citta of the previous life (dying-consciousness) is immediately succeeded by the first citta
of this life, without there being any interval. That is why tendencies one had in the past
can continue by way of accumulation from one citta to the next one and from past lives to
the present life. Since people accumulated different tendencies in past lives, they are born
with different tendencies and inclinations. Rebirth-consciousness is the result of kamma,
it is vip¯akacitta. Our life starts at the moment the pat.isandhi-citta arises together with
the ru¯pa which is at the same time produced by kamma. A lifespan ends when the last
citta, the dying-consciousness (cuti-citta) falls away. Kamma produces ru¯pa not only at
the first moment of life but throughout our life. Kamma produces the vip¯akacittas which
experience pleasant and unpleasant objects through the sense-doors, and it also produces
throughout our life the ru¯pas which can function as the sense-doors through which these
objects are received. Some kammas produce results in the same life in which they have
been performed, some produce result in the form of rebirth-consciousness of a future life,
or they produce result in the course of a future life. We have performed deeds in past lives
which could produce rebirth but which have not yet come to fruition. We cannot know
which kamma will produce the next rebirth. If akusala kamma produces the rebirth of
the next life there will be an unhappy rebirth. In that case the cittas which arise shortly
before the dying-consciousness are akusala cittas and they experience an unpleasant object.
The pat.isandhi-citta of the next life which succeeds the cuti-citta (the dying-consciousness),
experiences that same unpleasant object. If kusala kamma produces the rebirth there will
be a happy rebirth. In that case kusala cittas arise shortly before the cuti-citta and they
experience a pleasant object. The pat.isandhi-citta of the next life experiences that same
pleasant object. The object experienced shortly before the dying-consciousness may be a
sign of kamma one performed, or a sign of one’s future destiny, or it may be any object
experienced through one of the senses. The kamma that will produce the next rebirth
conditions the last javana-cittas arising before the cuti-citta to experience that object.
There is no self who transmigrates from one life to the next life; there are only n¯ama and
ru¯pa arising and falling away. The present life is different from the past life but there is
continuity in so far as the present life is conditioned by the past. The Visuddhimagga (XVI,
164-168) explains by way of similes that although the present is different from the past there
is continuity. The being who is born is not the same as the being of the past life, but it is
Chapter 18: Death and Rebirth 24
conditioned by the past. There is “neither absolute identity nor absolute otherness”, as the
Visuddhimagga explains. We read with regard to the pat.isandhi-citta:
“An echo, or its like, supplies The figures here; connectedness By continuity
denies Identity and otherness. And here let the illustration of this consciousness
be such things as an echo, a light, a seal impression, a looking glass image, for
the fact of its not coming here from the previous becoming and for the fact
that it arises owing to causes that are included in past becomings. For just
as an echo, a light, a seal impression, and a shadow, have respectively sound,
etc., as their cause and come into being without going elsewhere, so also this
consciousness.”
Chapter 19: Rebirth in different planes of existence (1) 25
Akusala kamma and kusala kamma of different beings can produce nineteen different types
of rebirth-consciousness, pat.isandhi-citta, in all, arising in different planes of existence. The
pat.isandhi-citta is vip¯akacitta, the result of kamma. One pat.isandhi-citta is akusala vip¯aka
and eighteen types are kusala vipaka. There are many degrees of each of these nineteen
types of pat.isandhi-citta because the kamma that produces them can be of many degrees.
Birth in a woeful plane is the result of a bad deed and birth in a happy plane is the
result of a good deed. Since the deeds of beings are of many different degrees of kusala
and akusala, the results are of many different degrees as well. The pat.isandhi-citta that is
akusala vip¯akacitta arises in an unhappy plane of existence and the pat.isandhi-citta that
is kusala vip¯akacitta arises in a happy plane of existence. A plane of existence is the place
where one is born. There are different woeful planes and different happy planes of existence.
Only one type of pat.isandhi-citta is akusala vip¯aka, but it is of many degrees. There are
many varieties of akusala kamma and thus there must be many varieties of an unhappy
rebirth. The unhappy rebirth we can see in this world is birth as an animal. Apart from
the animal world there are three more classes of woeful planes, which we cannot see; they
are the world of petas (ghosts), the world of asuras (demons), and the hell planes. There
are different kinds of hell planes because there are many degrees of akusala kamma which
produce different kinds of unhappy rebirth. The akusala vip¯aka in hell is more intense than
the sufferings which can be experienced in the human plane. The descriptions of hells in the
Buddhist teachings are not merely allegories; the experience of unpleasant things through
eyes, ears, nose, tongue and bodysense is akusala vip¯aka and akusala vip¯aka is reality. Life
in a hell plane is not permanent; when one’s lifespan in a hell plane is over there can be
rebirth in another plane. Birth as a human being is a happy rebirth. In the human plane
there is opportunity for the development of kusala. One can study Dhamma and learn to
develop the way leading to the end of defilements, to the end of birth and death. Birth in
the human plane is kusala vip¯aka, but during one’s lifespan in this plane there are both
kusala vip¯aka and akusala vip¯aka. Each person experiences different results in life: there
are gain and loss, honour and dishonour, praise and blame, happiness and misery. It is due
to kamma whether someone is born into pleasant or unpleasant surroundings, whether he
belongs to a family which is well-to-do or which is poor. The experience of pleasant and
unpleasant things through eyes, ears, nose, tongue and bodysense are the results of kamma.
Other happy planes, apart from the human plane, are the heavenly planes. In the heavenly
planes there is more kusala vip¯aka than in the human plane and less akusala vip¯aka. There
are several heavenly planes and although life in a heavenly plane lasts a very long time, it
is not permanent. The woeful planes, the human plane and the six heavenly planes which
are deva planes, are sensuous planes of existence. Sensuous planes of existence are planes
where there is seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, the experience of tangible object through
the bodysense and other k¯am¯avacara cittas (cittas of the sensuous plane of consciousness).
There are eleven classes of sensuous planes of existence in all. In the “Discourse on the
Lesser Analysis of Deeds” (Middle Length Sayings III, sutta 135) we read that Subha asks
the Buddha what the cause is of the different results human beings experience from the
time of their birth:
“Now, good Gotama, what is the cause, what is the reason that lowness and
excellence are to be seen among human beings while they are in human form?
For, good Gotama, human beings of short lifespan are to be seen and those of
Chapter 19: Rebirth in different planes of existence (1) 26
long lifespan; those of many and those of few illnesses; those who are ugly, those
who are beautiful; those who are of little account, those of great account; those
who are poor, those who are wealthy; those who are of lowly families, those of
high families; those who are weak in wisdom, those who are full of wisdom.”
The Buddha answered Subha: ”Deeds are one’s own, brahman youth, beings
are heirs to deeds, deeds are matrix, deeds are kin, deeds are arbiters. Deed
divides beings, that is to say by lowness and excellence.”
Chapter 20: Rebirth in different Planes of Existence (2) 27
Rebirth-consciousness does not only arise in sensuous planes of existence, k¯ama-bhu¯mi, it
can also arise in higher heavenly planes which are not sensuous planes of existence. If one
is born in one of the k¯ama-bhu¯mis and one sees the disadvantage of sense impressions, one
may cultivate jh¯ana, absorption. Then one can, besides k¯am¯avacara cittas, also have ru¯pa-
jh¯anacittas and aru¯pa-jh¯anacittas. If one cultivates the eightfold Path one can have lokut-
tara cittas, supramundane cittas which directly experience nibb¯ana. There are four planes
of citta: k¯am¯avacara cittas, ru¯p¯avac¯ara cittas which are ru¯pajh¯anacittas, aru¯p¯avac¯ara cittas
which are aru¯pajh¯anacittas and lokuttara cittas. Which of these planes of citta a partic-
ular citta belongs to, depends on the object it experiences. K¯am¯avacara citta experiences
a sense object. Ru¯p¯avac¯ara cittas and aru¯p¯avac¯ara cittas experience with absorption the
meditation subjects of ru¯pa-jh¯ana and aru¯pa-jh¯ana. Lokuttara citta experiences nibb¯ana.
A plane of citta is different from a plane of existence which, as we have seen, is the place
where rebirth-consciousness arises.
When someone attains jh¯ana, the kusala kamma he performs is not k¯am¯avacara kusala
kamma; at the moment of jh¯ana there are no sense impressions. The kusala kamma which
is jh¯ana does not produce result in the same lifespan one attains it, but it can produce
result in the form of pat.isandhi-citta, the pat.isandhi-citta of the next life. In that case
there are jh¯anacittas arising shortly before death and the pat.isandhi-citta of the next life
experiences the same object as those jh¯anacittas. The result of ru¯p¯avacara kusala citta
(kusala citta which is ru¯pa-jh¯anacitta) is birth in a heavenly plane which is not k¯ama-
bhu¯mi (sensuous plane of existence) but a ru¯pa-brahma-plane (fine-material world). The
result of an aru¯p¯avacara kusala citta (kusala citta which is aru¯pa-jh¯anacitta) is birth in
a heavenly plane which is an aru¯pa-brahma plane (immaterial world). There are differ-
ent ru¯pa-brahma planes and aru¯pa-brahma planes. Those who attain ru¯pa-jh¯ana can be
reborn in ru¯pa-brahma-planes where there are less sense-impressions. There are sixteen
ru¯pa-brahma planes in all. One of these is the plane of unconscious beings, asan~n~asatta.
Those who cultivate ru¯pa-jh¯ana and see the disadvantage of n¯ama may be reborn in a plane
where there is only ru¯pa, not n¯ama. Thus, here there is not a rebirth-consciousness, only
ru¯pa-pat.isandhi. Those who see the disadvantages of the meditation subjects of ru¯pa-jh¯ana
which are still bound up with materiality, cultivate aru¯pa-jh¯ana. If they attain aru¯pa-jh¯ana
they can be reborn in aru¯pa-brahma planes where there is no ru¯pa, only n¯ama. There are
four classes of aru¯pa-brahma planes. There are thirty-one classes of planes of existence in
all, namely:
11 sensuous planes:
4 woeful planes
1 human plane
6 deva planes
16 ru¯pa-brahma planes
4 aru¯pa-brahma planes
Kusala kamma can cause a happy rebirth, but the end of birth is to be preferred to
any kind of rebirth. If one cultivates the eightfold Path and attains arahatship there will
be no more rebirth. The dying-consciousness (cuti-citta) of the arahat is not succeeded by
Chapter 20: Rebirth in different Planes of Existence (2) 28
a pat.isandhi-citta. The Buddha reminded people of the dangers of birth and encouraged
them to be mindful, in order to attain the “deathless’” which is nibb¯ana. We read in the
Mah¯a-parinibb¯ana-sutta (Dialogues of the Buddha I, no. 16, chapter I, 1-4):
“... The Exalted One proceeded with a great company of the monks to
Kotig¯ama; and there he stayed in the village itself. And at that place the
Exalted One addressed the monks, and said: ‘It is through not understanding
and grasping four Ariyan Truths, O monks, that we have had to run so long,
to wander so long in this weary path of rebirth, both you and I!’ And what
are these four? The Ariyan truth about dukkha; the Ariyan truth about the
cause of dukkha; the Ariyan truth about the cessation of dukkha; and the
Ariyan truth about the path that leads to that cessation. But when these
Ariyan truths are grasped and known the craving for future life is rooted out,
that which leads to renewed becoming is destroyed, and then there is no more
birth!’ ”
Chapter 21: Accumulated inclinations 29
The first citta in a life span is the rebirth-consciousness or pat.isandhi-citta. It is a
vip¯akacitta produced by kamma and it links the past life to the present life. As we have
seen, there are nineteen types of vip¯akacitta that can perform the function of rebirth. The
pat.isandhi-citta is succeeded by the bhavanga-citta (life-continuum). The bhavanga-citta
is the same type of citta as the pat.isan-dhi-citta and it experiences the same object. As we
have seen, this object is the same as the object experienced by the last javana-cittas of the
previous life and it is conditioned by the kamma that produces the rebirth-consciousness
of the following life. The bhavanga-citta keeps the continuity in a lifespan. So long as one
is still alive, bhavanga-cittas arise and fall away during the time there is no sense-door
process or mind-door process of cittas. Bhavanga-cittas arise in between the different
processes of cittas which experience an object through one of the six doors. It performs
its function of keeping the continuity in life until the dying-consciousness, the cuti-citta,
arises and one passes away from this life. The dying-consciousness of a life that is ending
experiences the same object as all the previous bhavanga-cittas and it is of the same
type. Thus, the rebirth-consciousness, the bhavanga-citta and the dying-consciousness
do not experience objects that impinge on the six doors like the cittas that arise in the
different processes. The whole day cittas arising in processes experience objects through
eyes, ears, nose, tongue, bodysense and mind-door and in between the processes there are
bhavanga-cittas. Each citta is succeeded by a following citta in the long series of cittas
in our life, there isn’t any moment without citta. In the course of life kammas produce
different vip¯akacittas which experience objects through the eyes, the ears, the nose, the
tongue and the bodysense. Vip¯akacittas neither like nor dislike the object, they do not
react to the object in an unwholesome or a wholesome way. However, shortly after they
have fallen away there are cittas which react to the objects experienced through the senses
either in an unwholesome way or in a wholesome way. Akusala cittas or kusala cittas
arising in a sense-door process or mind-door process, are called javana-cittas (literally:
readiness, impulse, going). They arise usually in a sequence of seven cittas of the same
type. They fall away immediately but the inclination to akusala and kusala is accumulated
so that there are conditions for the arising again of akusala citta and kusala citta. Since
each citta is succeeded by the next citta without any interval, the process of accumulation
can go on from moment to moment, from one life to a next life. Each moment of kusala
citta or akusala citta arising today is a condition for the arising of kusala citta or akusala
citta in the future. There are different types of kusala citta and of akusala citta. It is
important to learn more about them in order to understand ourselves, about the way we
behave towards others in action and speech, and the way we react towards pleasant and
unpleasant events. It is citta which motivates good deeds and evil deeds and these will
produce their results accordingly. The Buddha exhorted people to abstain from akusala,
to perform kusala, to purify the mind, and his impressive words were a real support for
people to follow his advice.
Chapter 22: Four Planes of Consciousness (part 1) 30
There are many ways of classifying citta and one way is the classification by way of plane
of consciousness, in Pali: bhu¯mi. There are four planes of consciousness:
the sensuous plane of consciousness, k¯ama-bhu¯mi,
the plane of ru¯pa-jh¯ana, ru¯pa-bhu¯mi,
the plane of aru¯pa-jh¯ana, aru¯pa-bhu¯mi,
the plane of supramundane citta, lokuttara-bhu¯mi
As we have seen, plane of consciousness is different from plane of existence which is
the place where one is born. What plane of consciousness a citta belongs to depends on
the object it experiences. The sensuous plane of consciousness (k¯am¯avacara cittas) are the
cittas that experience sense objects, such as seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, the experience
of tangible object through the bodysense and the experience of these objects through the
mind-door. On account of pleasant and unpleasant objects experienced through the senses,
kusala cittas (wholesome cittas) and akusala cittas (unwholesome cittas) arise. We usually
cling to all the sense objects. Those who see the disadvantage of sense impressions and the
defilements bound up with them cultivate samatha (tranquil meditation) and may attain
absorption (jh¯ana). The jh¯anacitta is of another plane of citta, and this is higher than the
sensuous plane of citta. Jh¯anacittas do not experience sense objects, they experience with
absorption a meditation subject through the mind-door. For the development of samatha,
tranquil meditation, it is essential to have a keen understanding of the characteristic of
calm and of the way to develop calm with a suitable meditation subject. True calm has
to be wholesome, it is freedom from defilements. Right understanding, pan~n~a¯, that knows
precisely when the citta is kusala citta and when akusala citta is indispensable. When the
objective of citta is not d¯ana, s¯ıla or mental development, bh¯avan¯a, the citta is usually
akusala, but we may not notice this. Indifferent feeling seems to be very calm, but actually,
indifferent feeling arises with kusala citta as well as with akusala citta rooted in attachment
or rooted in ignorance. One may be attached to silence, and without right understanding
one may erroneously believe that there is kusala citta with calm. The Visuddhimagga
(Chapters IV-XII) describes forty meditation subjects which can condition calm such as
disks (kasinas), recollection of the excellent qualities of the Triple Gem, mindfulness of death,
loving-kindness or mindfulness of breathing. A meditation subject does not necessarily bring
about calm. Only when there is right understanding of calm and the way to develop it,
calm can grow. Through samatha the “hindrances” (n¯ıvaran. a), which are akusala cetasikas,
are temporarily suppressed. The hindrances arise time and again in daily life. They are
sensuous desire (k¯amacchandha), ill-will (vy¯ap¯ada), torpor and languor (th¯ına and middha),
restlessness and worry (uddhacca and kukkucca) and doubt (vicikicch¯a). Someone who
wants to develop samatha so as to be able to attain jh¯ana, has to develop five jh¯ana-factors
which can inhibit the hindrances, and these are the following cetasikas:
applied thinking (vitakka)
sustained thinking (vic¯ara)
rapture (p¯ıti)
happy feeling (sukha)
concentration (sam¯adhi)
Chapter 22: Four Planes of Consciousness (part 1) 31
Jh¯ana is developed in stages, with each succeeding stage being more refined than the
preceding one. For the first stage of ru¯pa-jh¯ana it is still necessary that all five jh¯ana-factors
arise with the jh¯anacitta, but at each higher stage, when one has become more advanced,
jh¯ana-factors are successively abandoned. Jh¯anacittas do not produce vip¯aka in the same
lifespan: their result is rebirth in higher planes of existence. The result of ru¯p¯avacara kusala
cittas is rebirth in ru¯pa-brahma planes. Those who have attained the highest stage of ru¯pa-
jh¯ana and see the disadvantages of ru¯pa-jh¯ana which is still dependent on materiality, might
want to cultivate aru¯pa-jh¯ana or “immaterial jh¯ana”. The meditation subjects of aru¯pa-
jh¯ana are not connected with materiality. There are four stages of aru¯pa-jh¯ana and each
one of these is more subtle and more peaceful than the preceding one. These stages are: the
“Sphere of Boundless Space” (¯ak¯as¯anan~c¯ayatana), the “Sphere of Boundless Consciousness”
(vin~n~a¯n. an~c¯ayatana), the “Sphere of Nothingness” (¯akin~can~n~a¯yatana), and the “Sphere of
Neither Perception Nor Non-Perception” (n’eva-san~n~a¯-n’¯asan~n~a¯yatana). Even when one
has attained the highest stage of jh¯ana, defilements cannot be eradicated. They can only
be eradicated by lokuttara magga-citta.
Chapter 23: The Four Planes of Consciousness (part 2) 32
As we have seen, there are four planes of citta: the sensuous plane of consciousness, the
plane of ru¯pa-jh¯ana, the plane of aru¯pa-jh¯ana, and the plane of lokuttara citta, supramun-
dane citta. When enlightenment is attained lokuttara cittas arise which directly experience
nibb¯ana. The lokuttara citta is the highest plane of consciousness. There are four stages of
enlightenment: the stages of the sot¯apanna (streamwinner), the sakad¯ag¯am¯ı (once-returner),
the an¯ag¯am¯ı (no-returner) and the arahat. At each of these stages the lokuttara kusala citta,
the path-consciousness (magga-citta), arises which experiences nibb¯ana and eradicates de-
filements. The magga-citta of each of these stages is succeeded immediately by the lokuttara
vip¯akacitta, the fruition-consciousness (phala-citta) which also experiences nibb¯ana.
Wrong view has to be eradicated first. So long as one takes realities for self there cannot
be the eradication of any defilement. The sot¯apanna, the ariyan who has attained the first
stage of enlightenment, has eradicated dit.t.hi completely, so that it can never arise again,
but he has not eradicated all defilements. Defilements are eradicated stage by stage and
only when arahatship has been attained all defilements have been eradicated. Only the
right Path, the eightfold Path, can lead to enlightenment. The eightfold Path is developed
by being mindful of the n¯ama and ru¯pa which appear in daily life, such as seeing, visible
object, hearing, sound, thinking, feeling, attachment, anger or the other defilements which
arise. This is actually the development of vipassan¯a, insight-wisdom. There are several
stages of insight-wisdom. The characteristics of n¯ama and ru¯pa have to be investigated
over and over again until they are clearly understood as they are and there is no more
wrong view about them. The realization of the arising and falling away of n¯ama and ru¯pa,
their impermanence, is a higher stage of insight which cannot be attained so long as the
characteristic of n¯ama cannot be distinguished from the characteristic of ru¯pa. All the
different stages of insight have to be attained in the right order. Pan~n~a¯ should continue to
investigate the characteristics of realities as they appear through the six doors so that the
three characteristics of conditioned realities, namely: impermanence (anicca), dukkha and
non-self (anatt¯a), can be penetrated more and more. When pan~n~a¯ has clearly understood
these three characteristics enlightenment can be attained. Pan~n~a¯ which has become lokut-
tara pan~n~a¯ experiences nibb¯ana, the unconditioned reality. Nibb¯ana does not arise and fall
away; it is the end of the arising and falling away of n¯ama and ru¯pa, the end of birth, old
age, sickness and death. Nibb¯ana is the end of dukkha. When one has attained the first
stage of enlightenment, the stage of the sot¯apanna, it is certain that there will eventually
be an end to the cycle of birth and death, an end to dukkha. When the person who is not
an arahat dies, the last citta of his life, the cuti-citta (dying-consciousness) is succeeded by
the pat.isandhi-citta (rebirth-consciousness) of the next life and thus life goes on. So long
as there are defilements life has to continue. The fact that we are here in the human plane
is conditioned by defilements. Even if there is birth in a heavenly plane, in a ru¯pa-brahma
plane or in an aru¯pa-brahma plane, it is conditioned by defilements. The arahat has no
more defilements, he does not have to be reborn in any plane. For him there will not be
the arising of n¯ama and ru¯pa in a new life any more, and this means the end to the cycle
of birth and death. We read in the Kindred Sayings (IV, Kindred Sayings on Sense, Third
Fifty, Chapter 5, 152, Is there a Method?), that the Buddha spoke to the monks about the
method to realize through direct experience the end to dukkha:
“Herein, monks, a monk, seeing visible object with the eye, either recognizes
within him the existence of lust, malice and illusion, thus: ‘I have lust, malice
Chapter 23: The Four Planes of Consciousness (part 2) 33
and illusion,’ or recognizes the non-existence of these qualities within him, thus:
‘I have not lust, malice and illusion.’ Now as to that recognition of their exis-
tence or non-existence within him, are these conditions, I ask, to be understood
by belief, or inclination, or hearsay, or argument as to method, or reflection on
reasons, or delight in speculation?’ ‘Surely not, lord.’ ‘Are not these states to
be understood by seeing them with the eye of wisdom?’ ‘Surely, lord.’ ‘Then,
monks, this is the method by following which, apart from belief. . . a monk
could affirm insight thus: Ended is birth, lived is the righteous life, done is the
task, for life in these conditions there is no hereafter.’ ”
We then read that the same is said with regard to the experiences through the doorways
of the ears, nose, tongue, bodysense and mind. The development of understanding of all
that is real, also of one’s defilements, is the way leading to the eradication of defilements,
to the end of rebirth. This is the end to dukkha.
Chapter 24: Latent Tendencies 34
Defilements, akusala cetasikas, are of different levels, they may be subtle or more coarse.
Defilements that are transgressions (v¯ıtikkama kilesa), are coarse defilements of the degree
of unwholesome courses of action through body or speech. Defilements one is possessed
with and that arise with akusala citta (pari- yut.t.h¯ana kilesa) are medium defilements that
disturb the citta. Latent tendencies (anusaya kilesa) are subtle defilements that lie dormant
in the citta and do not arise but condition the arising of akusala citta. The latent tendencies
are enumerated in the Tipit.aka and the Commentaries, where it is stated that the Buddha,
the Fully Enlightened One, understood these by his perfect knowledge of beings’ biases
and underlying tendencies (¯asay¯anusaya n~a¯n. a). Since each citta that arises and falls away
is immediately succeeded by the next citta, unwholesome and wholesome behaviour and
inclinations are accumulated from moment to moment and from life to life. The latent
tendencies which are unwholesome inclinations that are accumulated are the following:
sense-desire (k¯ama-r¯aga), aversion (pat.igha), conceit (m¯ana), wrong view (dit.t.hi), doubt
(vicikicch¯a), desire for becoming (continued existence, bhavar¯aga), and ignorance (avijj¯a).
It is essential to have more understanding of the latent tendencies and their power. They
are called subtle defilements because they do not arise with the akusala citta, but they are
powerful. Since they have not been eradicated they can strongly condition and influence
our behaviour. They lie dormant in the citta like microbes infesting the body. So long as
they have not been eradicated we are like sick people, because they can condition the arising
of akusala citta when there are the appropriate conditions. They can condition the arising
of akusala citta even to the degree of transgression of s¯ıla at any time, and thus, more
defilements are accumulated again and added to the latent tendencies. The teaching of the
latent tendencies helps us to see why the defilements in our life are so tenacious, arising
again and again, and why their arising is unforeseeable and uncontrollable. When we study
the enumeration of the latent tendencies, we should remember that these latent tendencies
are not abstract notions. The latent tendency of sense-desire or sensuous clinging conditions
akusala citta with attachment to any kind of pleasant object. We may have expectations
as to kind words or praise from other people. This is selfish desire that has been deeply
accumulated and is very powerful. The latent tendency of aversion conditions akusala citta
with aversion, but we should know that this has many shades. It is not only a matter
of hate or anger, but it also arises when we are upset or depressed because we do not
receive the pleasant object we were hoping for. The latent tendency of conceit conditions
the arising of akusala citta with clinging to the importance of self. It can arise on account
of any object experienced through the six doorways, and it often motivates our speech
and actions. All latent tendencies condition the arising of akusala citta, but because of
accumulated ignorance we do not notice their arising, we are deluded time and again. The
latent tendencies are subsequently eradicated by the lokuttara magga-citta of each of the
four stages of enlightenment. Wrong view and doubt are eradicated at the first stage, the
stage of the sot¯apanna. At the second stage sense-desire and aversion are not yet eradicated
but they are diminished. They are completely eradicated at the third stage, the stage of
the an¯ag¯ami. Conceit, desire for becoming and ignorance are eradicated at the stage of the
arahat. Thus we see that the eradication of the latent tendencies takes a long time. It can
only be achieved by the development of understanding of all dhammas appearing in daily
life.
Chapter 25: The Seven Books of the Abhidhamma 35
Chapter 26: Introduction 36
The Abhidhamma consists of the following seven books:
Dhammasangan.¯ı (translated as “Buddhist Psychological Ethics”, P.T.S. and also trans-
lated by U Kyaw, Myanmar.)
Vibhan˙ ga (translated as “Book of Analysis”, P.T.S.)
Dh¯atukath¯a (Translated as “Discourse on Elements”, P.T.S.)
Puggalapan~n~atti (Translated as “A Designation of Human Types”, P.T.S.)
Kath¯avatthu (Translated as “Points of Controversy”, P.T.S.)
Yamaka (the Book of Pairs, not translated into English)
Pat.t.h¯ana (Translated in part as “Conditional Relations”, P.T.S. )
A summary of the contents of these seven books has been given by Ven. Nyanatiloka in
his “Guide through the Abhidhamma Pit.aka” (B.P.S. Kandy, 1971) and also by U Kyaw
Khine in the introduction to his translation of the Dhammasan˙ gan¯ı. Therefore, I will render
only some salient features of each book with the purpose to show that the classifications
found in the Abhidhamma are not mere lists to be read and memorized. They all point to
the investigation of the realities of our daily life. In this way the pan~n~a¯ is developed that
sees realities as they are, as impermanent, dukkha and anatt¯a. This kind of pan~n~¯a leads
to the eradication of defilements. The commentary to the Dhammasan˙ gan¯ı, the first book,
is the “Atthas¯alin¯ı”, edited by the venerable Buddhaghosa and translated as “Expositor”.
The Dhammasan˙ gan¯ı begins with the M¯atika, a table of contents or matrix, which is an
introduction. It is more extensive than a table of contents. This m¯atik¯a has been arranged
by way of triads and dyads. It is a survey of the contents of the first book and can even serve
as an introduction to all seven books. Different groups of defilements have been listed, such
as the intoxicants (¯asavas), fetters, ties, floods, yokes, hindrances. After the Abhidhamma
matrix there is a Suttanta matrix, explaining sutta terms. The Atthas¯alin¯ı, the commentary
to the Dhammasan˙ gan¯ı, dedicates a whole chapter to explain the notions of the M¯atika. The
M¯atik¯a begins with: kusala dhamm¯a, akusala dhamm¯a, avy¯akata dhamm¯a. In these three
terms all that is real has been contained. In avy¯akata dhamm¯a, indeterminate dhammas, are
included all realities that are not kusala or akusala, namely: vip¯akacittas, kiriyacittas, ru¯pas
and nibb¯ana. The whole Tipit.aka is directed towards the liberation from the cycle of birth
and death through insight. This appears also in the M¯atika, where we read (1013-1015):
"Dhammas going to building up; going to pulling down; going to neither." The
Atthas¯alin¯ı elaborates: " ’accumulation’ means that which is accumulated by
kamma and corruptions. It is a name for the processes of rebirth and decease.
’Leading to accumulation’ are ’those causes which by being accomplished to go
to, lead a man, in whom they arise, to that round of rebirth’. It is a name for
co-intoxicant moral or immoral states. Nibb¯ana being free from ’cumulation’,
which is another word for ’accumulation’, is called dispersion. ’Leading to
dispersion’ is ’going towards that dispersion which he has made his object.’ It
is a name for the Ariyan Paths. Or, ’leading to accumulation’ are those states
which go about severally arranging (births and deaths in) a round of destiny
like a bricklayer who arranges bricks, layer by layer, in a wall.’ ’Leading to
dispersion’ are those states which go about destroying that very round, like a
man who continually removes the bricks as they are laid by the mason."
Chapter 27: The Dhammasan˙ gan¯ı, the first Book of the Abhidhamma 37
The Dhammasan˙ gan¯ı, begins, after the M¯atika, with a description of mah¯a-kusala citta
accompanied by pan~n~a¯. It enumerates all the sobhana cetasikas assisting this citta while
they accompany it just for a moment. It refers to mah¯a-kusala citta experiencing an ob-
ject, be it visible object, sound, odour, flavour, tangible object or dhamma object. This
points to daily life. Time and again citta experiences an object through one of the six
doors. The Dhammasan˙ gan¯ı states with regard to the first type of mah¯a-kusala citta of
the sense sphere: ”At a time (yasmim. samaye) when mah¯a-kusala citta of the sense sphere
accompanied by joy and associated with understanding has arisen...” and then sums up
the accompanying cetasikas. The “Expositor” (p. 76) explains the word samaya as time,
occasion, concurrence of conditions, the mutual contribution towards the production of a
common result: “By this word showing thus the condition, the conceit of one who believes
that states unconditionally follow one’s own will is subdued.” We cling to the idea of our
own will that can direct dhammas, but this is not according to reality. Will or volition, be
it wholesome, unwholesome or indeterminate, is only a conditioned element. The mah¯a-
kusala citta is accompanied by the cetasikas that always accompany citta, the “universals”,
such as contact, feeling or remembrance, san~n~a¯, as well as by the “particulars”, pakinnakas,
cetasikas that accompany many cittas but not all. Then follows a list of all the sobhana
cetasikas necessary for the arising of even one moment of kusala citta of the sense sphere.
For example, the cetasika confidence or faith, saddh¯a, always has to accompany kusala
citta. If there is no confidence in kusala, kusala citta could not arise. There have to be
non-attachment and non-aversion. When we perform d¯ana or observe s¯ıla we are not self-
ish, we are not thinking of our own pleasure and comfort. There is calm with each kusala
citta, at such a moment there is no agitation. There has to be sati which is non-forgetful
of kusala. Sobhana cetasikas are necessary so that mah¯a-kusala citta with pan~n~a¯ can arise
just for one extremely brief moment and perform its function, and then citta and cetasikas
fall away together. The cetasikas condition the citta by way of conascence-condition and
by several other conditions. Thus, we cannot make kusala arise at will, it has no possessor;
there is no one who can direct its arising. It arises when the right conditions are present
and then it falls away immediately; nobody can cause it to last. All the sobhana cetasikas
that fall away are accumulated from moment to moment so that there are conditions for
the arising again of kusala citta. We shall see that several cetasikas are listed more than
once under different aspects, such as understanding as faculty, or as power. The list ends
with: sampajan~n~a (sati and pan~n~a), samatha, vipassan¯a, pagg¯aha (grasp, which is the fac-
ulty of energy), avikkhepa (balance, self-collectedness, another word for ekaggata cetasika,
one-pointedness or concentration). Thus we see that these lists are not a mere summing
up, but that they point to the development of right understanding of realities.
Chapter 28: The Vibhan˙ ga, the Second Book of the Abhidhamma 38
The second book of the Abhidhamma is the Vibhan˙ ga, the Book of Analysis, and its com-
mentary is the “Sammoha Vinodan¯ı” , translated as the “Dispeller of Delusion” (P.T.S.).
The Vibhan˙ ga gives an explanation of the khandhas (aggregates), ¯ayatanas (sense bases),
dh¯atus (elements), and several other subjects. It gives explanations according to the Sut-
tanta method, by way of conventional terms, and the Abhidhamma method, by way of
ultimate realities. It also has sections of interrogation. The aim is, as is the case of the
whole of the Abhidhamma, to develop right understanding of n¯ama and ru¯pa as they ap-
pear in daily life. This book helps one to know more about the deeper-lying motives of
one’s thoughts and actions. One may take them for wholesome, but in fact there are very
often selfish motives that are unnoticed. The section on ‘the Small Items’ (Khuddakavatthu
Vibhan˙ ga) is most revealing in the descriptions of akusala such as conceit. It gives an im-
pressive list of all the objects on account of which conceit may arise (832), namely: pride
of birth, of clan, of health, of youth, of life, of gain, of being honoured, of being respected,
of prominence, of having adherents, of wealth, of appearance, of erudition, of intelligence,
of being a knowledgeable authority.... Conceit is compared to hoisting a banner; at the
moment of conceit one finds oneself important. There are many definitions of akusala, but
the purpose is to know them when they arise through the development of satipat.t.h¯ana.
We read in the section of “the Heart of the Teaching” (1031): “The three bad roots are to
be known fully, are to be comprehended, are to be abandoned...” Abandonment can only
be accomplished by fully knowing them and comprehending them. Among the many word
explanations we read about understanding (here translated as awareness, 525): “Therein
what is awareness? That which is wisdom, understanding, investigation, research, truth
investigation, discernment, discrimination, differentiation, erudition, proficiency, subtlety,
analysis, consideration, breadth, sagacity, guidance, insight, awareness, goad, wisdom, con-
trolling faculty of wisdom, power of wisdom, sword of wisdom, tower of wisdom, light of
wisdom, lustre of wisdom, splendour of wisdom, jewel of wisdom, absence of dullness, truth
investigation, right view...” It is well worth to consider these definitions. When we read
about the subtlety of wisdom we are reminded that the teachings are very subtle and have
to be carefully considered. Only thus there can be the lustre and splendour of wisdom that
causes the darkness of ignorance to disappear.
Chapter 29: The Dh¯atu-Kath¯a, the Third Book 39
The third book of the Abhidhamma is the Discourse on Elements, Dh¯atu-Kath¯a. This book
deals with all realities, classified with reference to the khandhas, the ¯ayatanas (translated
as bases) and the dh¯atus, elements. It deals with realities that are ‘included’( sangahita),
or not included (asangahita), and this pertains to the different classifications of dhammas.
It deals with dhammas that are associated (sampayutta) or dissociated (vippayutta). Only
n¯ama can be associated with another n¯ama, such as citta and cetasikas. Ru¯pa does not
have such a close association with n¯ama. The charts added by the translator makes the
reading of these classifications easier. But we should not forget that all these classifications
pertain to the reality appearing at this moment. The khandhas are citta, cetasika and
ru¯pa arising and falling away at this moment. When seeing arises, there is the khandha of
consciousness, vin~n~a¯n. akkhandha, and there are the accompanying cetasikas: the khandha
of feeling, vedan¯akkhandha, san~n~a¯khandha, san˙ kh¯arakkhandha (including other cetasikas
apart from feeling and san~n~a¯), and there is eyesense which is ru¯pakkhandha. As to the
¯ayatanas, there are six internal ¯ayatanas and six external ¯ayatanas. The internal ¯ayatanas
are the five senses and mind-base, man¯ayatana, which includes all cittas. The external
¯ayatanas are the five sense objects and damm¯ayatana, which includes cetasikas, subtle
ru¯pas and nibb¯ana. When we see, hear or think we believe that a self experiences different
objects, but in reality there is the association of the internal ¯ayatana and the external
¯ayatana, the objects “outside”. As to the elements, these can be classified in different ways,
and in this book they are classified as eighteen: the five senses, the five sense objects, the
“five pairs” of sense-cognitions experiencing the five sense-objects (one of each pair being
kusala vip¯akacitta and one akusala vip¯akacitta), and in addition: mind-element (mano-
dh¯atu), dhamma-dh¯atu and mind-consciousness- element (mano-vin~n~a¯n. a-dh¯atu). Mind-
element and mind-consciousness-element comprise cittas other than the sense-cognitions.
Dhamma-dh¯atu comprises cetasikas, the subtle ru¯pas (sukhuma ru¯pas) and nibb¯ana. In
all these classifications concepts such as person or thing have not been included. Only
paramattha dhammas have been included. We may think of concepts, but these are not
real in the ultimate sense. Thinking itself is citta, it is a reality. If there is no understanding
of realities as just elements, we shall continue to cling to the wrong view of self who sees,
hears or thinks. Seeing is a dh¯atu that experiences an object, it is n¯ama. Visible object is
ru¯pa, it is included in ru¯pakkhandha. Visible object or colour does not know anything, it
is dissociated (vippayutta) from nama, it is completely different from seeing.
Dh¯atus are not mere names, they have characteristics that can be directly experienced when
they appear. We are reminded by the Dh¯atukath¯a that the teaching on elements pertains
to realities appearing at this moment which are anatt¯a, devoid of a self.
Chapter 30: Puggalapan~n~atti, the fourth Book 40
The fourth book of the Abhidhamma is the Puggalapan~n~atti (Translated as “A Designation
of Human Types”). This book deals with the cittas and the different accumulated tendencies
of individuals. Some people are easily inclined to anger, whereas others are full of mett¯a.
We read about an angry person: ‘What sort of person is angry? What then is anger? That
which is anger, and the state of being angry, hatred, hating, hatefulness, malice, the act of
being malicious, maliciousness, hostility, enmity, rudeness, abruptness, resentment of heart-
this is called anger. He who has not got rid of this anger is said to be an angry person.” In
this definition we read about the “state of being angry”, and this teaches us that anger is
not a person, that it is a dhamma which is conditioned. We think of an angry person, but
anger, after it has arisen, is gone completely, it does not last. The contents of this book are
the evil and good qualities of individuals, but actually, these are cetasikas, mental factors
arising because of conditions. Thus, we are constantly reminded that these are not persons,
they are impermanent and not self. We read (II, 17) about a person who is guarded as to
the sense-doors. There is no person who is guarding the sense-doors, but the realities of
sati and pan~n~a¯ are guarding the sense-doors. When there is mindfulness and understanding
of visible object appearing through the eye-door, of sound appearing through the ear-door,
of the other sense objects appearing through the other sense-doors, one is not enslaved by
these objects but one learns to see these realities as they are: impermanent and non-self.
At such moments there is no opportunity for akusala cittas rooted in lobha, dosa and moha.
Some persons are able to attain jh¯ana, others do not. We read (I, 30):
“Which is the person who is twice-liberated (ubhatobh¯aga-vimutta)? It is one
who, in his own person, has attained to the eight liberations (jh¯anas), and
through wise penetration his taints (¯asava) have come to extinction.” (I, 31)
“Which is the person who is liberated by wisdom (pan~n~a¯-vimutta)? It is one
who has not attained, in his own person, to the eight liberations, but through
wise penetration his taints have come to extinction.”
When we read about the attainments of different individuals we should not
forget that these are citta and cetasikas with highly developed pan~n~a¯.
Chapter 31: Kath¯avatthu, the Fifth Book 41
The Fifth book of the Abhidhamma is the Kath¯avatthu (Translated as “Points of Contro-
versy”). Its commentary has been translated as “The Debates Commentary”, P.T.S.) This
book which is a treatise against schismatic monks has been composed by Moggali-putta-
tissa. It was recited at the third Buddhist Council. The First Buddhist Council was held
by fivehundred arahats headed by the Venerable Mah¯akassapa in R¯ajagaha shortly after the
Buddha passed away. Here the Abhidhamma Pit.aka was also included along with the Vinaya
and Suttanta. The Second Buddhist Council was held by sevenhundred arahats headed by
the Venerable Mah¯ayasa one century after the Buddha’s passing away. The version of the
Texts in the First Buddhist Council was re-approved or re-affirmed. The Third Buddhist
Council was convened by King Asoka at Pata.liputta, about 240 B.C. Thousand Arahats
were headed by Moggaliputta-Tissa Thera who preached the Kath¯avatthu treatise against
schismatic monks. At that time there were seventeen schismatic schools. Thereupon, the
Abhidhamma-Pit.aka reached its completeness and became seven books. The Kath¯avatthu
consists of questions and answers, it is a dialogue between the sakav¯adin (theravada) and the
opponent. For example, the first question is: ‘Is there, in the absolute sense, any personality
(puggala) to be found?’. In the teachings the term person is used in figurative speech, in
conventional sense, but in the ultimate sense there is no person. Schismatic monks believed
that a person really existed. Similar questions about the person or the world are raised
today. We read, for instance, about questions on rebirth. The opponent thinks: ‘the person
transmigrates’. The Sakav¯adin asks whether it is the identical person who transmigrates
or a different person. Or, the question is asked (Ch VIII, 75) whether there is an inter-
mediate stage between the end of a lifespan and the beginning of the next life at rebirth.
This book covers a wide range of subjects, and each question is viewed from various angles.
We read about speculative questions with regard to the Dependent Origination, the four
Truths, kamma and result, emancipation, arahats, the future and the present, destinies,
impermanence, jh¯ana attainments, insight and many other subjects. Such questions can
remind us that so long as understanding of the dhamma appearing at this moment is not
being developed stage by stage, there will always be doubt and ignorance of the truth.
Chapter 32: Yamaka, the Sixth Book of the Abhidhamma 42
The Sixth Book of the Abhidhamma is the ‘Yamaka”, the Book of Pairs. This book and
its commentary have not been translated into English. Venerable Nyanatiloka renders
a summary of it in his “Guide through the Abhidhamma Pit.aka”. This book consists of
questions and answers about subjects such as the roots (mu¯la), the khandhas, the ¯ayatanas,
the dh¯atus, the four noble truths, the conditions and the anusayas, latent tendencies. These
questions and answers can correct misunderstandings that may arise about the terms used
in the scriptures. For instance, one may think that with regard to the first noble Truth,
the Truth of dukkha, dukkha is the same as unhappy feeling. Dukkha is often translated
as sorrow and this is misleading. We learn that the Truth of dukkha does not only refer to
painful feeling but to all phenomena that arise because of conditions and fall away. Since
they are impermanent they cannot be of any refuge and are therefore dukkha. The text of
this book is rather compact and therefore it is most helpful to study it together with its
commentary. We shall see that the subjects of this book are not theoretical but that they
pertain to daily life. When we, for example, read about the latent tendencies, there are
short lists, but the commentary goes very deeply into this subject, it is most revealing. As
we have seen, the latent tendencies are sense desire, aversion, conceit, wrong view, doubt,
craving for existence and ignorance. In the text we read: “Where does the bias of sensuous
craving adhere? To the two feelings”. These are happy feeling and indifferent feeling. The
commentary states: “When the latent tendency of sense desire arises it is conascent with
unwholesome pleasant feeling or indifferent feeling, and it can also take these two feelings
as object. It can also take as object the feelings that accompany kusala citta, vip¯akacitta
and kiriyacitta of the sense-sphere.” We read in the commentary:
“When the latent tendency of sense desire arises. ”
We should know that the word “arisen” (uppanna) has several meanings. In the context
of the latent tendencies, it is said:
“arisen” in the sense of “having obtained a soil” (bhumiladdhuppanna), which
means: not cut off. “Arisen in the sense of having obtained a soil” refers to
the defilements which have not been eradicated and which have obtained a
soil. Thus, the latent tendencies do not arise with the citta, they condition the
arising of akusala citta.
We also read in the commentary:
“Surely, the latent tendency of sense desire that adheres to an object, does not
merely adhere to these two feelings and to the dhammas that are conascent
with them. It also adheres to visible object that is desirable, and so on.
The Buddha taught in the ‘Book of Analysis’ (Ch 16, Analysis of Knowledge, 816, And
what is the latent tendency of beings?):
“That which in the world is a lovely thing, pleasant thing (piyaru¯pam. ,
s¯ataru¯pam. ), the latent tendency of sense desire of beings adheres to this. ”
Thus, desirable n¯ama dhammas and ru¯pa dhammas can be the objects of sense desire.
When sense desire arises and has as object desirable n¯amas and ru¯pas, the accumulation
of the latent tendency of sense desire continues. Whenever there is a pleasant object sense
desire clings. We can verify this in daily life. The only dhammas that are not objects of
clinging are the nine lokuttara dhammas of nibb¯ana and the eight lokuttara cittas.
Chapter 33: The Pat.t.h¯ana, the seventh book of the Abhidhamma 43
The Seventh Book of the Abhidhamma is the “Pat.t.h¯ana” (translated partly by the Vener-
able U N¯arada as “Conditional Relations”). The translator also wrote a “Guide to Condi-
tional Relations” with many explanations. The “Pat.t.h¯ana” describes in detail all possible
relations between phenomena. There are twentyfour classes of conditions. Each reality in
our life can only occur because of a concurrence of different conditions which operate in a
very intricate way. These conditions are not abstractions, they operate now, in our daily
life. What we take for our mind and our body are mere elements which arise because of
their appropriate conditions and are devoid of self. We should consider the conditions for
the bodily phenomena which arise and fall away all the time. At the first moment of our life
kamma produced the heart-base and other ru¯pas together with the rebirth-consciousness,
and throughout our life kamma continues to produce the heartbase and the sense-bases. Not
only kamma, but also citta, heat and nutrition produce ru¯pas of the body. The cittas which
arise are dependent on many different conditions. We tend to forget that seeing is only a
conditioned reality and that visible object is only a conditioned reality, and therefore we
are easily carried away by sense impressions. Each citta experiences an object, be it a sense
object or a mental object, and the object conditions citta by object-condition, ¯aramman. a-
paccaya. It is beneficial to remember that seeing, hearing and the other sense-cognitions
are vipakacittas, cittas which are results of kamma. They arise at their appropriate bases,
vatthus, which are also produced by kamma. Hearing is conditioned by sound which im-
pinges on the earsense. Both sound and earsense are ru¯pas which also arise because of their
own conditions and fall away. Thus, hearing, the reality which they condition, cannot last
either; it also has to fall away. Each conditioned reality can exist just for an extremely short
moment. When we understand this it will be easier to see that there is no self who can exert
control over realities. How could we control what falls away immediately? When we move
our hands, when we walk, when we laugh or cry, when we are attached or worried, there are
conditions for such moments. Cittas succeed one another without any interval. The citta
that has just fallen away conditions the succeeding citta and this is by way of proximity-
condition, anantara-paccaya. Seeing arises time and again and after seeing has fallen away
akusala cittas usually arise. In each process of cittas there are, after the sense-cognitions
have fallen away, several moments of kusala cittas or akusala cittas, called javana-cittas.
These experience the object in a wholesome way or unwholesome way. There are usually
seven javana-cittas and each preceding javana-citta conditions the following one by way of
repetition-condition, ¯asevana-paccaya. We cling to visible object, or we have wrong view
about it, taking it for a being or a person that really exists. Defilements arise because they
have been accumulated and they are carried on, from moment to moment, from life to life.
They are a natural decisive support-condition, pakatu¯panissaya-paccaya, for akusala citta
arising at this moment. The study of conditions helps us to have more understanding of the
“Dependent Origination”, the conditional arising of phenomena which keep beings in the
cycle of birth and death. Each link of the Dependent Origination conditions the following
one by way of several types of conditions. It is necessary to know which conditioning factors
are conascent with the dhamma they condition and which are not. The “Pat.t.h¯ana” helps
us to understand the deep underlying motives for our behaviour and the conditions for our
defilements. It explains, for example, that kusala, wholesomeness, can be the object of
akusala citta, unwholesome citta. On account of generosity which is wholesome, attach-
ment, wrong view or conceit, which are unwholesome realities, can arise. The “Pat.t.h¯ana”
Chapter 33: The Pat.t.h¯ana, the seventh book of the Abhidhamma 44
also explains that akusala can be the object of kusala, for example, when akusala is consid-
ered with insight. This is an essential point which is often overlooked. If one thinks that
akusala cannot be object of awareness and right understanding, the eightfold Path cannot
be developed.
Chapter 34: Conclusion 45
All the texts of the Tipit.aka , including the Abhidhamma, are not meant merely for intellec-
tual study or memorizing, they are directed to the practice, the development of vipassan¯a.
All the classifications of cittas, cetasikas and ru¯pas are terse reminders of the truth, they
are an exhortation to develop understanding of what appears at this moment. This is the
development of the eightfold Path leading to the eradication of all defilements.